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The relationship between socioeconomic status and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis ZHANG Yali, ZHANG Jiangen, LI Hongxia, JIANG Yongzhi Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (12): 2650-2665.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.02650 Abstract （3759）   HTML （215）    PDF（pc） （1244KB）（3599）       Knowledge map    Save Socioeconomic status is an important topic concerned by social class psychology. With the transformation of social development, its influence on individual psychological development has been paid increasing attention. In recent years, scholars in different fields have carried out a series of discussions on the relation between socioeconomic status and mental health, especially depression, but results remain mixed. Some have reported negative correlations between socio-economic status and depression, and others have found weak to nonsignificant correlations. In general, the reported correlation coefficients ranged from -0.45 to 0. At present, no studies have systematically generalized the scattered results on this topic, nor have they dissected the reasons for the inconsistent results. Therefore, it is necessary to gain better insight into the relation between socioeconomic status and depression, and the factors that affect this relation. At the same time, China is in the deep-water area of reform and development. The rapid economic development has made the gap between the rich and the poor increasingly intensified, and it has also made class mobility more difficult. Therefore, exploring the relation between socio-economic status and depression can provide a more detailed basis for the formulation of the current social mental health service system in China. In Chinese database (China National Knowledge Infrastructure database), the keywords “社会地位” or “经济地位” were respectively matched with “抑郁”, and the literatures with such keywords in the abstract were searched. In foreign databases (Web of Science Core Collection, Elsevier SD, PsycINFO, PsycArticles, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses), the keywords “socioeconomic status”, “socio-economic status”, “social class”, and “social status” were matched with “depress*” respectively, and the literatures with such keywords in the abstract were searched. In addition, to avoid omissions, literature supplementation was performed through citations during literature reading and Google Scholar. Finally, a total of 11110 studies were obtained. After literature screening, a total of 58 studies (including 65 effect sizes and 76,715 participants) were finally included, with a time span from 1973 to 2022. The correlation coefficient r was used as the effect size, and the random effects model in software Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3.0 was used to conduct the meta-analysis. The main effect analysis indicated a small significant negative correlation between socio-economic status and depression (r = -0.15). Further sensitivity analysis showed that the estimated effect size fluctuated between-0.158 and -0.147, indicating that the estimated result was stable. The moderating effect analysis showed that: (a) The moderating effect of the sampling year was significant (b=-0.008, 95%CI [-0.015, -0.001]), and the relationship between socioeconomic status and depression became stronger with the development of the times; (b) The moderating effect of SES measurement tool is significant, and the correlation measured by SSS is the strongest, while the correlation measured by FISS or principal component analysis was the weakest; (c) The moderating effect of SES measurement type was significant, and the correlation between subjective socioeconomic status and depression was higher than that of objective socioeconomic status;. (d) The moderating effect of SES measurement form was significant, and the correlation between family socioeconomic status and depression was lower than that of one's own socioeconomic status; (e) The moderating effect of depression measurement tool was marginally significant, the correlation measured by SCL was not significant, and the correlation measured by CDI or CESD was higher than other tools; (f) Gender, age, individualism index and design form (cross-sectional design vs longitudinal design) had no significant moderating effects on the relationship between socioeconomic status and depression. This is the first study to analyze the overall strength of the association between socioeconomic status and depression. The results showed that there was a significant negative correlation between them, indicating that relevant public policies should be formulated and supporting schemes should be provided to care for the socio-economic disadvantaged groups, especially to improve their education and income levels, so as to prevent the occurrence of group depression. In addition, the present study also found that the effect size was affected by many operational characteristics (i.e., socio-economic status measurement type and depression measurement), suggesting that future researchers should pay more attention to the choice of scales when conducting research. Specifically, for socioeconomic status, objective and subjective indicators should be combined as far as possible, and it is best to directly measure the socioeconomic status of the individual rather than the family. For depression, scales that measure too few depressive symptoms should be avoided as far as possible. This study also found that the effect size is affected by the development of the times, suggesting that China should vigorously promote the policy of common prosperity in the new era, promote class mobility, prevent class solidification and the further expansion of the gap between the rich and the poor, so as to reduce the occurrence of depression from the social level. Finally, although age and research design failed to moderate the relation between socioeconomic status and depression, both essentially reflect the long-term effect of socioeconomic status on individual's depression. This suggests that public services and public policies should pay attention to long-term effectiveness in the implementation. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Moderation analysis for longitudinal data FANG Jie, WEN Zhonglin Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (11): 2461-2472.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.02461 Abstract （3542）   HTML （143）    PDF（pc） （933KB）（2488）       Knowledge map    Save At present, the analysis of moderating effect is mainly based on cross sectional data. This article discusses how to analyze the moderating effect with longitudinal data. If the independent variable X and the dependent variable Y are longitudinal data, longitudinal moderation models can be divided into three categories according to the type of moderator: time-invariant moderator, time-variant moderator, and moderator generated from X or Y. For example, Xtj is divided into two parts, time-varying intra-individual differences $X_{t j}-\bar{X}_{\bullet} j$ and time-invariant inter-individual differences$\bar{X}_{\boldsymbol{\bullet} j}$, and then the moderating effect of $\bar{X}_{\boldsymbol{\bullet} j}$ on the relationship between $(X_{t j}-\bar{X}_{\bullet} j)$ and Ytj can be analyzed. In that case, there will be no new moderator Z, which is characteristic of moderation research on longitudinal data in contrast to research on cross-sectional data. Four types of longitudinal moderation analysis approaches are summarized: 1) Multilevel model (MLM); 2) Multilevel structural equation model (MSEM); 3) Cross-lagged model (CLM); 4) Latent growth model (LGM). It is found that the decomposition of the moderating effect and the use of the latent moderating structural equation (LMS) method are the two characteristics of the moderation analysis for longitudinal data. Specifically, MLM, MSEM, and CLM divide the moderating effect of longitudinal data into three parts: the time-varying intra-individual part, time-invariant inter-individual part, and the cross-level part. In addition, the moderating effect of longitudinal data can be decomposed into the moderating effect of initial level and rate of change by LGM. In the present study, we propose a procedure to analyze longitudinal mediation analysis. The first step is to decide whether it is necessary to make a causal inference. If the aim of research is to make a causal inference, CLM should be adopted to analyze longitudinal moderation. Otherwise, proceed with the second step. The second step is to decide whether it is necessary to treat longitudinal data as multilevel data. If longitudinal data is treated as multilevel data, MSEM should be adopted to analyze longitudinal moderation, because MSEM and MLM are more suitable for describing individual differences. Otherwise, LGM should be adopted to analyze longitudinal moderation, because only an LGM can simultaneously examine the effect of some variables on change and how the change affects other variables. The third step is to decide whether MSEM converges. If MSEM converges, the result of MSEM should be reported. Otherwise, MLM should be adopted to analyze longitudinal moderation. Compared with MLM, MSEM takes sampling error into account when the group mean is calculated, but the convergence of the MSEM is more difficult. Therefore, the MSEM with sampling error taken into account is preferred. If convergence fails, MLM will be considered. This paper exemplifies how to conduct the proposed procedure by using Mplus. Directions for future research on moderation analysis of longitudinal data are discussed, such as the moderation analysis for intensive longitudinal data based on the dynamic structural equation model. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on memory in adolescents and the underlying neural mechanisms ZHANG Mingxia, LI Yuxin, LI Jin, LIU Xun Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (1): 1-9.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00001 Abstract （3379）   HTML （288）    PDF（pc） （1197KB）（4934）       Knowledge map    Save Motivation is the core of all behaviors. Motivation can be classified as the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. The processing of the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation involves the reward, value, and control systems that would interact with the hippocampal memory system to facilitate memory performance. During adolescence, the brain develops rapidly, making it a critical period for memory development. Meanwhile, the subsystems of motivation develop unbalanced during adolescence (i.e., the reward system is sensible and the control system is immature), making it a special period for the motivation development. However, so far, the investigation of how extrinsic and intrinsic motivation impact teenage memory is on the start stage. There is a lack of systematic exploration and comparison of the behavioral rules and neural mechanisms of the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation’s impact on memory during adolescence. It remains unclear whether the rules and mechanisms of the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation’s impact on memory are common or specific and how the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation interacts with each other to affect memory during adolescence. As the monetary reward is easy to operate and quantify, previous research always used monetary reward to manipulate extrinsic motivation. In addition, intrinsic motivation is a hotspot in recent neuroscience research. Autonomy is the core concept of intrinsic motivation, which is often induced by self-determined choice. The current research will focus on monetary reward (extrinsic motivation) and self-determined choice (intrinsic motivation). We will integrate psychological and neuroscience methods and conduct a series of experiments to systematically reveal the impact of the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on memory during adolescence on multiple levels (cognitive level, neural activity level and neural network level). Specifically, the current research will directly compare the mechanisms via which the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation affects memory and we will also examine how the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation interacts with each other to affect memory, so as to reveal the unique behavioral rules and neural mechanisms via which the two types of motivation (the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation) affect memory during adolescence. This research will greatly enrich the theory and improve the level of the field of motivation and memory. It has important theoretical significance for us to understand the nature of motivation, the underlying mechanisms of how motivation affects memory and the brain development during a very critical period in our life, the adolescence. It also has important practical significance for promoting adolescents’ motivation and learning. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Conceptualization of time poverty and its impact on well-being: From the perspective of scarcity theory SUN Xiaomin, YANG Shuting, KONG Xiaoshan, LIU Zhenzhen, MA Rongzi, YUAN Yue, ZHANG Nan, JIANG Xinying, CAO Peiling, BAO Ruiji, LIN Yiqin, LI Ning, LI Zhihang Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (1): 27-38.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.00027 Abstract （3167）   HTML （146）    PDF（pc） （716KB）（3793）       Knowledge map    Save In today’s fast-paced world, increasing numbers of individuals are facing time poverty, i.e., having too much to do and not enough time. It can impact people's cognitive processes and behaviors by affecting their attention. However, the extant literature provides only a limited understanding of the influence of time poverty and its effects on individual multi-faceted well-being. Therefore, a comprehensive investigation of the concept of time poverty and its impact on well-being is of great importance theoretically and practically. The current study intends to present a three-dimensional theoretical model for the construct of time poverty from an integrated perspective, aiming to explore its effects on multi-faceted subjective well-being and investigate the potential mechanisms by which time poverty reduces well-being based on scarcity theory. Specifically, the current study proposes a three-dimensional structure for the concept of time poverty, which includes length, intensity, and quality. Most researchers agree that spending an excessive amount of time on paid work or unpaid domestic work and having an insufficient amount of free time leads to time poverty. Moreover, the number of tasks to be completed per unit of time may be an independent source of pressure resulting in the perception of time poverty. The stressful pace caused by over-rapid task completion and too short intervals could increase the sense of time poverty. Lastly, the quality dimension of time poverty comprises time integrity, time autonomy, and time synchronization. Low time quality could worsen the perception of time poverty. Based on the three-dimensional model of time poverty, the current study aims to develop a time poverty scale and construct a large-scale Chinese time poverty database. This database is designed to collect demographic information as well as the level of time poverty of representative samples, aiming to explore the dominant type of time poverty for different demographic groups and trace the dynamic changes in time poverty over time. Furthermore, the current study proposes that time poverty can have a significant impact on people’s well-being. Time poverty can develop a scarcity mindset, leading people to focus on the scarcity of time. Consequently, they overemphasize productivity, resulting in a strong inclination of completing more tasks in a shorter amount of time. Such a mindset shifts people’s attention from the activity’s process to its results, reducing intrinsic motivation and, as a result, ruining people’s well-being. An excessive focus on productivity can also harm interpersonal and family well-being by underestimating the importance of investing time and energy in nurturing relationships, thereby lowering the quality of relationship-oriented interactions. Therefore, we argue that by promoting the over-productivity orientation, time poverty can adversely affect individual, interpersonal, and family well-being. Furthermore, time poverty in one spouse's workplace produces an over-productivity tendency which then spills over to the family environment and is conveyed to the other spouse in their daily interactions. Such processes are likely to negatively influence both parties’ well-being. Overall, the current project develops a three-dimensional time poverty theoretical model, based on which a time poverty scale will be developed. With the new scale, a large-scale database will be constructed. The project will explore the experiences of different groups of people with distinct characteristics in Chinese society, and how such experiences influence personal, interpersonal, and family well-being. The results of the current project are of great importance for not only the successful coping of time poverty for individuals but also for societies aiming to improve the well-being of their people. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Applications of cognitive appraisal theory of stress in managerial psychology research: Scenes, methods, and myths JIANG Fubin, WANG Zhen Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (12): 2825-2845.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.02825 Abstract （3101）   HTML （124）    PDF（pc） （1138KB）（2425）       Knowledge map    Save Stressors are everywhere in the workplace. How do individuals respond to stressors? The cognitive appraisal theory of stress provides an integrated framework for explaining this question from the perspective of cognitive appraisal and coping. This theory has become the mainstream framework for describing individuals’ reactions to stressors during the past 40 years. However, because the theory did not provide the precise relationship among theoretical elements, empirical research applied the theory quite differently, resulting in various and even inadequate applications. We conduct this study to present the application and development of the cognitive appraisal theory of stress. 125 empirical studies in the field of managerial psychology were systematically reviewed to identify the scenarios, methods, and myths in applying the theory. The results showed that, (1) The cognitive appraisal theory of stress explains “what is cognitive appraisal?” “what factors influence cognitive appraisal?” “how individuals cope with stressors?” and “what are the consequences of stressors?”. Questionnaires are often used to collect data of theoretical elements. (2) The cognitive appraisal theory of stress can explain the impacts of six categories of stressors (physical stressors, task-related stressors, role stressors, social stressors, career-related stressors, and traumatic events) on employees’ work attitude, behavior, health, and work-family relationship. (3) The application of this theory can be considered from aspects of primary appraisal, secondary appraisal, and coping. There are two perspectives to analyze the application of primary appraisal - outcome-perspective and process-perspective. Both individual and situational factors can affect individuals’ primary appraisals of stressors. Secondary appraisal involves individuals’ appraisal of their own coping potential, and its influencing factors can be divided into individual and situational aspects, too. Coping refers to individuals’ cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage internal or external demands exceed their own resources, which contains problem-focused and emotion-focused forms of coping. (4) There are myths in using this theory among existing empirical research. For example, some studies hold the views that stressors always lead to negative consequences, certain stressors lead to certain cognitive appraisals, certain cognitive appraisals lead to certain coping styles, and problem-focused forms of coping are more effective than emotion-focused forms of coping. This study has several significant implications. First, we present the core ideas of the cognitive appraisal theory of stress and the measurements of theoretical elements. More importantly, we clarify some controversies about this theory, which contributes to the correct application and future development of the theory. Second, we integrate the application scenes and methods of the theory in managerial psychology research. By doing so, we broaden current understandings of this theory and then, shed light on theoretical application. Third, the myths about theoretical application are clarified. Based on this, we provide some suggestions for future research in applying this theory, which are beneficial to theoretical development and further applications. Moreover, it is important for future research to optimize the measurement of the core theoretical construct, expand the application scenarios of the theory, and enrich the influencing factors of the cognitive evaluation process. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effects of gender nonconformity on adolescent peer evaluation and related dynamics WEN Fangfang, KE Wenlin, FANG Zeming, WANG Yang, LEI Yatian, ZUO Bin Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (8): 1331-1341.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01331 Abstract （3064）   HTML （143）    PDF（pc） （874KB）（3623）       Knowledge map    Save Inherent gender is an important dimension of self-identity and social categorization, and has a huge impact on individual psychology, interpersonal relationships, intergroup behaviors and social development. Gender stereotypes, gender socialization and gender attitudes have been stable themes in disciplines, such as social psychology, developmental and educational psychology and sociology. Gender is the core component of the self-concept and an important dimension of social categorization. Gender Nonconformity is a psychological phenomenon in which individuals display gender norms that do not correspond or are inconsistent with their birth sex. In recent years, the phenomenon of Gender Nonconformity has become increasingly prominent among adolescents, and previous studies have shown that Gender Nonconformity adolescents face challenges in social adjustment such as peer relationships. Although some research paradigms and theoretical findings have been accumulated in the area of Gender Nonconformity and related areas, there are still limitations. Although some research paradigms and theoretical findings have been accumulated in the area of Gender Nonconformity and related areas, there are still limitations. Firstly, previous studies have mainly adopted the traditional binary approach of gender conformity and non-conformity; secondly, there is a lack of cognitive-motivational pathways to examine the prototypical matching and avoidance intentions of Gender Nonconformity in influencing adolescents' peer evaluations; thirdly, previous studies have mainly adopted a static perspective on gender-biased peer evaluations, ignoring the dynamic processes of gender-biased generation and evolution. To address these limitations, this study will break through the gender binary category and explain the psychological mechanisms of static effects and dynamic changes of Gender Nonconformity on peer evaluation from the perspective of the relationship between basic attributes and gender attributes, and provide possible interventions to change the negative peer evaluation of Gender Nonconformity individuals. The specific aims of the study include: firstly, to develop and provide neurophysiological evidence for the basic attributes of Gender Nonconformity; secondly, to reveal the cognitive-motivational dual-path mechanism of prototype matching and avoidance intention in the process of Gender Nonconformity influencing peer evaluation; and thirdly, to explore the dynamic evolutionary mechanism of Gender Nonconformity influencing peer evaluation. Focusing on the above three research aims, this study systematically examines the influence of Gender Nonconformity on peer evaluation and its evolutionary psychological mechanisms according to a progressive research hierarchy of "realization layer - algorithmic layer - computational layer". The study includes three aspects. (1) A polymorphic refinement examines the effects of Gender Nonconformity on peer evaluation, constructs a view of the underlying attributes of Gender Nonconformity and provides behavioral and neurophysiological evidence of the layers of realization. (2) A dual cognitive-motivational pathway mechanism for Gender Nonconformity to influence peer evaluation is revealed at the algorithmic level. The social cognitive paradigm is used to explore the cognitive activation of "prototype matching" and the motivational activation of "intention to avoid" in the process of Gender Nonconformity influencing peer evaluation through questionnaires, behavioral experiments and situational experiments. (3) Exploring the dynamic evolutionary mechanisms of Gender Nonconformity in peer evaluation from the abstract computational level. Using reinforcement learning paradigms, computational modelling, implicit measurement, contextual experiments and live experiments, the prototype formation process of Gender Nonconformity peer evaluations is simulated using reinforcement learning models based on a dual pathway of cognition and motivation to explore the dynamic evolutionary mechanisms of gender-biased peer evaluations and possible intervention pathways for negative peer evaluations of gender-biased individuals. The findings of this study can provide some managerial and educational insights into the effective promotion of youth gender development, peer relationships and mental health based on a gender perspective. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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How sharing on social media influences consumer choices JIN Fei Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (8): 1785-1793.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.01785 Abstract （2965）   HTML （220）    PDF（pc） （661KB）（2782）       Knowledge map    Save In today’s highly interconnected mobile and computer-mediated environment, where the act of posting is only a click away, consumers increasingly post their consumption experiences online, from social media to review websites and e-commerce marketplaces. Echoing this momentum, a growing number of brands and marketplaces explicitly encourage consumers to post their purchase experiences by deftly including social media buttons or using hashtag-rich digital communications that directly prompt consumers to post to trigger greater engagement and sales. Previous research has mainly focused on when and why consumers share on social media after purchases. The current research examines whether, how, and when exposure to sharing cues (e.g., social media buttons) during a purchase episode influences consumer choices. We argue that exposure to sharing cues promotes impression management motivation and decreases sense of autonomy. Based on these accounts, we examine two consequences: product interest and decision termination. In the first research, we examine how the mere presence of sharing cues on a webpage may influence consumer behavior in unexpected ways that can variably help or hurt companies promoting their products online. Drawing upon research on the use of both social media and product consumption for self-presentation purposes, we hypothesize that the presence of social media cues increases feelings of public self-consciousness and this increased self-consciousness influences consumers’ interest. We further show that the effect of public self-consciousness on product interest is moderated by product self-presentational value. Consumers’ interest will increase for products that they would like others to see them own or use (i.e. desirable self-presentational value). However, consumers’ interest will decrease for products that they would not like others to see them own or use (i.e., undesirable self-presentational value). Technological advances enable firms not only to record and track transactions but also to analyze consumers’ responses to their offerings even prior to making their decisions. The pervasiveness of situations in which we are observed or even merely feel observed goes beyond direct human interactions at different stages of the decision process in the social media era. In the second research, we propose that social media cues make consumers feel being observed by others and reducing feelings of independency. This threatens consumers’ sense of autonomy, which is defined as feeling that decisions are made free from external influence. We argue that sense of autonomy, the fundamental motivation of humans, is most pronounced during the process when consumers are comparing different options. Specifically, the pre-decisional or process stage captures the stage wherein consumers are still considering the choices in the consideration set, reviewing the available information, and examining the trade-offs. On the contrary, the post-decisional or outcome stage captures the stage in which consumers already know their preferences and remind them by either sharing on social media. Notably, this distinction pertains to whether consumers are still in the midst of constructing their preferences while being observed or had already finished constructing their preferences and are being observed while indicating their choice. We show that threats to sense of decision autonomy occur if consumers are observed prior to finalizing their choice (vs. during making decisions). The current findings contribute to social sharing and give insights to how digital environment affects consumer behavior. Managerially, the findings demonstrate when brand-led efforts to prompt customers to share their purchases backfires. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Does classical music make you smarter? A meta-analysis based on generalized Mozart effect CHEN Lijun, HUANG Meilin, JIANG Xiaoliu, WANG Xinjian Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (12): 2232-2262.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.02232 Abstract （2923）   HTML （148）    PDF（pc） （1262KB）（3150）       Knowledge map    Save Since the last century, scholars have increasingly focused on examining how Mozart’s music affects people’s cognitive performance, leading to rapid growth in the empirical literature on the Mozart effect. However, the effect size reported in empirical studies has been inconsistent. To address this, we conducted a meta-analysis based on a systematic and comprehensive review of studies on the impact of classical music, seeking to determine its influence on cognitive performance and the underlying mechanisms at work. We also investigated whether the characteristics of research participants (e.g., age group, gender, cultural context) and elements of experimental design (e.g., type of experimental design, types of control music, the order of music, cognitive task and cerebral hemisphere) moderate the magnitude of the Mozart effect. We identified studies by searching Web of Science, PubMed, ProQuest, WanFang, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure from 1993 to 2022 using the following terms: (“Mozart effect” OR “Mozart music” OR “music effect” OR “classical music”) AND (cognit* OR intellig* OR spati*). Our selection criteria were as follows: (1) the study reported original empirical findings; (2) at least two out of three possible treatments (listening to Mozart's Sonata KV 448, other classical music, or silence/other sounds) were administered to the groups; (3) the study involved the generalized Mozart effect and cognitive performance; (4) participants were the general public, excluding clinical or animal samples; (5) the study was written in either Chinese or English (the languages spoken by the authors). Ninety-one studies (with a total of 172 independent effect sizes and 7,159 participants) were included in the meta-analysis. Given that effect size could be influenced by participant characteristics (e.g., age, gender, cultural context), we applied a random-effects model. After coding the data, the “metafor” package (version 3.4.0) in R software was used to evaluate the total effect size of classical music and to analyze the publication bias test and moderating effects. The results showed that classical music improved cognitive task performance with a small effect (g = 0.36, 95% CI [0.24, 0.49]). The impact of publication bias was minimal, and the major findings remained valid. Additionally, the moderation analyses revealed that the strength of the relationship was moderated by age group, cultural context, type of experimental design, and dominant hemisphere of the brain. Specifically, the effect size of Chinese subjects was significantly larger than that of foreign subjects (g: 0.64 > 0.27, p = 0.018), and the effect size of preoperational stage children (3~6 years) was the largest (g= 1.10). Compared with the within-subject design, the between-subject effect was significantly greater (g: 0.48 > 0.22, p = 0.037). The right hemisphere also performed much better than the left (g: 0.44 > 0.08, p = 0.019). Moreover, gender interacted with age group, cultural context and cerebral hemisphere. The direct priming hypothesis received more robust support from this meta-analysis (g: 1.29 > 0.34, p = 0.045). To summarize, this study makes several important theoretical advances. First, this study systematically assessed the effects of listening to classical music on cognitive performance basing on a broad definition of Mozart effect, covering a wider range of musical genres and cognitive task types. It bridged the limitations of existing meta-analyses, clarified the debate on the reliability and scientific validity of the Mozart effect, and laid the groundwork for in-depth discussions. More importantly, this paper was the first to compare the effect sizes based on the "Direct Priming Hypothesis" and the "Arousal-mood Hypothesis", indicating the former to be more adept at explaining the Mozart effect. This provided a clearer theoretical guide for future researches. Finally, by examining the moderation effects of several factors, this paper explained why previous literature on the Mozart effect has reported inconsistent findings and provided more targeted design guidance for future studies. Beyond its theoretical advancements, the current paper’s results also have practical implications, such as the implications of age group differences and their interactions for children's cognitive development. The results can also aid in utilizing music education more effectively to boost cognitive performance. Future researches are encouraged to examine the long-term facilitative effect of classical music on cognitive performance, to explore the role of music preference in cognitive facilitation, and to explore more underlying moderators for the intervention effect size, such as subjects' personality traits, familiarity with music, and difficulty of the cognitive task. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The relationship between disgust and suicidal behavior XIAO Tingwei, DONG Jie, LIANG Fei, WANG Fushun, LI Yang Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (1): 87-98.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00087 Abstract （2869）   HTML （170）    PDF（pc） （851KB）（3547）       Knowledge map    Save Suicide is the primary cause of adolescent death, and suicide seriously endangers the life security and mental health of human being. Suicidal behavior includes suicidal ideation, suicidal attempt and suicide. Suicidal ideation refers to serious suicidal thoughts of preparing for a fatal, self-directed, and potentially injurious behavior, or refers to the intension to die without specific plans. Suicidal attempt refers to the intension to commit suicide, including the plans for suicide and even committed suicide; they might attempt to attract attention through bodily harm, but not necessarily causing actual harm. However, suicide is self-directed harm or death. According to suicidal theories which were based on the ideation-to-action framework, self-disgust is a key factor for the formation of suicidal ideation. This article reviews theoretical basis, correlation factor and neurophysiological mechanism of disgust induced suicidal behavior, and predicts future research direction. Many recent studies suggested that many psychological problems, including suicide, are caused by patients' disgust to the surroundings and the environment. Disgust is a basic emotion, which is a response to disgustful things, and it is a defensive mechanism to keep people away from spoiled foods or from pollutants to prevent potential diseases, viruses and pollution. However, under heavy burdens and pressures, people would feel depressed and self-disgust, and ultimately lead to despair (extreme self-disgust), resulting in suicidal ideation. Under the condition of having suicidal ability, suicidal ideation would turn to be suicidal attempts, and thus suicide. It is also suggested that early life trauma might be the root for disgust inducing suicidal ideation. And life stress and mental illness might aggravate the induction of disgust to suicide. High-intensity self-disgust has been proved to be the most relevant predictor of suicidal risks in mental illness. Psychoanalysis shows that when people are disgusted by themselves, the aggression behavior induced by disgust would also be directed to themselves, so self-disgust might induce suicide. The neural mechanism of self-disgust inducing suicide may be related to monoamine (including serotonin) and oxytocin. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are related to the stress response system that plays a very important role in disgust-induced suicidal ideation. Besides, self-disgust may be affected by traumatic stresses in early life, current psychological problems and mental diseases, which might lead to the mal-development of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) system, that determines the pattern of stress response in adulthood, including suicide. However, there are still some limitations in current suicide studies. First of all, most studies are still limited to cross-sectional design and cannot compare time factors. Therefore, future studies should adopt vertical design and prospective research. Secondly, since most studies are limited to questionnaire studies, future studies could apply neuroscience technologies, such as neuroimaging and electrophysiology, in investigating the neural mechanisms of suicidal behavior, as well as the psychological and neural mechanisms of suicidal behavior affected by disgust. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Personality dynamics: The integration of process and trait WU Fan, HU Yueqin Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (7): 1269-1287.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01269 Abstract （2680）   HTML （73）    PDF（pc） （1011KB）（1586）       Knowledge map    Save Personality dynamics is a research perspective that focuses on intra-individual processes and their relationship with inter-individual personality traits such as Big Five. From the beginning, personality psychology has emphasized the dynamic nature of personality. Early theories of personality dynamics have been proposed but were not tested due to restrictions in methodology until the last two decades when the widespread use of intensive longitudinal analyses brought the personality dynamic approach back into focus. Theories of personality dynamics have several emphases: (1) distinguishing between stable and unstable components in the personality system; (2) the personality system is self-regulating; (3) situational and environmental factors are integral to understanding personality; and (4) personality is a multi-process system. While different theories of personality dynamics share the goal of explaining the underlying processes of observable personality traits, they can be further divided into personality process models and integrative models according to their different theoretical emphases. Personality process models focus on the influencing factors and mechanisms that produce behaviors in different contexts, i.e., why people behave differently in different situations. Prominent theoretical perspectives include theories that explain behaviors based on neurophysiology (e.g., the reinforcement sensitivity theory), the social-cognitive theories that explain behaviors via processes such as information processing, goal pursuit, and self-regulation (e.g., the cognitive-affective personality system model), and theories that emphasize the different types of interactions between persons and situations/environments (e.g, the person-environment relations model). In contrast, personality integrative theories attempt to integrate personality process models and trait models, focusing on explaining the causes of stable intra- and inter-individual personality structures by zooming in on the evolutional basis of human beings or the complex interactions of dynamic social-cognitive processes. Research questions include, for example, “What is the specific set of causal processes that underlie a specific trait?”, or “What are the causing forces underlying the inter-individual personality structures such as the big five personality traits?”. Representative theories addressing these issues include the whole trait theory, the knowledge-and-appraisal model of personality architecture, and the cybernetic big five theory. Empirical research on personality dynamics employs a range of methods designed to analyze the within-person multivariate dynamic functioning, the complex interrelationships therein, and the relationships between processes and traits. Intensive longitudinal design with the experience sampling method is commonly used. Intensive longitudinal data are usually analyzed using statistical models that can handle multi-level structures (e.g., multilevel models, multilevel structural equation modes), reciprocal relationship (e.g., dynamic structural equation models and group iterative multiple model estimation), multivariate network system analysis and visualization (e.g., graphical network analysis), and system-level feature extraction (e.g., dynamic system models). Based on these methods, applied personality research in organizational, educational, and clinical psychology has made progress on topics such as within-person variability in personality states and their correlation with variables of interest in the related field. Future research could address the following issues. Theoretically, researchers should pay attention to the distinctions and connections between intra-individual and inter-individual personality structures. Also, theories of personality dynamics, which focuses on the personality of normal individuals, can be integrated with the theory of psychopathology. In addition, future researchers can also consider how to incorporate temporal effects into theories. Empirically, future researchers could: incorporate different sampling methods, such as self-reports, others’ reports, behavioral indicators, and electronic footprints, to further sort out the sources of variance in personality states; measure multiple psychological processes simultaneously, such as the biological, cognitive, affective, and motivational processes underlying a particular trait; manipulate or measure personality states in a clearer and more precise manner to ensure that they are representative of the chosen personality, for example, measure personality facets rather than traits; and report reliability at the within-person level in multilevel analyses. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Methodological research on mediation effects in China’s mainland WEN Zhonglin, FANG Jie, XIE Jinyan, OUYANG Jinying Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (8): 1692-1702.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.01692 Abstract （2637）   HTML （165）    PDF（pc） （698KB）（3339）       Knowledge map    Save Being able to analyze the influence mechanism of independent variables on dependent variables, the analysis of mediation effect has become an important statistical method in multivariate research. Since the first publication of Chinese paper on the mediation effect and its analytical methods in 2004, the mediation effect has become one focus of methodological research in Chinese Mainland, which is systematically reviewed in this paper. Firstly, the simple mediation model is reviewed with concept identification: how to distinguish between mediation and suppression effects, partial and complete mediation effects, and mediation effect and moderation effect. Then, methodological research on mediation effects in China’s Mainland is divided into five aspects: testing method for mediation effects, mediation effect size measure, mediation effect involving categorical variables or longitudinal data, and extended mediation model. They are summarized as follows. To test ab≠0,the easiest way is to test a≠0 and b≠0. These sequential tests are actually not the same as the joint significance tests because the Type-I error rates are rather different. If the test result is a≠0 and b≠0, then ab≠0 can be inferred with the Type-I error rate less than the significance level 0.05 (the preset significance level), while the Type-I error rate of the joint significance tests is 0.0975. However, if at least one of a≠0 and b≠0 does not hold, the sequential tests should not be used, since its statistical power is less than other alternative test methods discussed in the paper. Anyway, Bootstrap methods are preferred because they provide interval estimation of the mediation effect with a higher power. Furthermore, if appropriate prior information is available, the Bayesian method is also recommended. It is believed that κ2, R2-type and so on are not suitable as mediation effect size measures because of no monotonicity. Although $\upsilon ={{(ab)}^{2}}$ is monotonic, it is not as simple and clear as the mediation effect (ab) itself. It is recommended that when the signs of ab and c are consistent, the standardized estimation of ab and ab/c should be reported. Mediation analysis with multi-categorical independent variables and with a two-condition within-participant design are discussed when categorical variables are concerned in mediation effect models. There are two types of model development in mediation analysis with longitudinal data. One is continuous time model and multilevel time-varying coefficient model that could be used to test time-varying effect of mediation effect. The other is random-effects cross-lagged panel model and multilevel autoregressive mediation model that could be adopted to examine individuals-varying effect of mediation effect. In addition, latent growth mediation model or multilevel mediation model in mediation effect analysis could be adopted only when the involved causal relationship is instant. Otherwise, cross-lagged panel model, continuous time model, or multilevel autoregressive mediation model should be adopted. The extensions of the mediation model include multiple mediation model, multilevel mediation model, single-level and multilevel moderated mediation model as well as mediated moderation model. These extended models can be used for both the analysis of observed variables and latent variables. Finally, the recent development of foreign methodological research on mediation effects is discussed, including potential outcome mediation analysis, confounder control in mediation analysis, robust mediation analysis, and power analysis of mediation effects. Moreover, integration of new statistical techniques has become a new feature of methodological research of mediation effects, for example, exploratory mediation analysis via regularization, bi-factor mediation analysis, latent class mediation analysis, and network mediation analysis. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The big data analysis in cultural psychology WU Michael Shengtao, MAO Yunyun, WU Shuhan, FENG Jianren, ZHANG Qingpeng, XIE Tian, CHEN Hao, ZHU Tingshao Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (3): 317-329.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00317 Abstract （2624）   HTML （144）    PDF（pc） （876KB）（2909）       Knowledge map    Save With the further development of computers and big data technology, human society and its cultural forms are undergoing profound changes. The production and interaction of cultural symbols have become increasingly complex, and cultural members and their social networks have left numerous texts and behavior footprints, which makes it necessary to describe, predict, and even change the culture, so that computable cultural symbols and their interaction process have gradually become the research object of cultural psychology. In this vein, Computational Cultural Psychology (CCP), which employs big data and computation tools to understand cultural symbols and their interaction processes, has emerges rapidly, making large-scale or even full sample cultural analysis possible. The key variables of CCP are mainly about individualism and collectivism, and the analysis technologies include feature dictionaries, machine learning, social networks analysis, and simulation. New research avenues of CCP involve the cultural change effect from the temporal perspective and cultural geography effect from the spatial perspective. For the former, Google Ngram Viewer, Google News, Google Search, name archives, pop songs, and micro-blogs were used to analyze the cultural changes after the long-term historical development and the short-term economic transformation. For the latter, both social media (e.g., Twitter, Facebook, and Weibo) and large-scale survey were used to analyze the cultural differences of various countries or regions in different geographic spaces, as well as the relationship between culture and environment, such as cultural diversity along the "Belt and Road", person - environment fit and cultural value mismatch across different regions in a country or all over the world. It should be noted that there are several limitations in CCP, including decoding distortion, sample bias, semasiological variation, and privacy risk, although new methods and paradigms are provided. In future directions, theoretical interpretation of variables, cultural dynamics, interdisciplinary integration, and ecological validity should be seriously concerned. In particular, accurate definition and theoretical interpretation of big data measurement are needed; a variety of big data corpus (e.g., historical archives) should be used for the evolutionary analysis of dynamic cultures; deep integration, but not conflict, should be encouraged between culture psychology and the sciences of computer, communication, and history; and the "scenarios" of big data should be considered in promoting the ecological validity of cultural psychology. Taken together, a review of the emergence of CCP, as well as the empirical research on the big data analysis of cultural change and cultural geography, is helpful in understanding the advantages, limitations, and future direction of this new field, which sheds light on theoretical and methodological innovation of cultural psychology. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of loneliness on consumption behavior and its theoretical explanations LI Ting, KONG Xiangbo, WANG Fenghua Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (6): 1078-1093.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01078 Abstract （2527）   HTML （289）    PDF（pc） （933KB）（3253）       Knowledge map    Save Loneliness has become an increasingly common social phenomenon that is widespread at all ages and has an impact on people's daily lives in modern societies. Loneliness is a painful emotional experience that individuals subjectively perceive when the quality of intimate or social relationships does not meet ideal expectations or when they cannot satisfy their need to belong. Recent research findings regarding the impact of loneliness on consumption behavior have contributed greatly to the field of consumer behavior. However, the results of existing research are inconsistent and it is still unclear how loneliness affects consumption behavior. As a consequence, the field of consumer behavior is rather constrained in terms of research development and marketing strategy. In light of the importance of loneliness in the field of consumer behavior, this article systematically reviews the research findings of the influence of loneliness on consumption behavior in order to solve the above problems. First of all, this article summarizes and generalizes the widely used manipulation methods (including the feedback-evoked method, recall-evoked method, imagination-evoked method, and cue-evoked method) and measurement tools (i.e., the UCLA loneliness scale) for loneliness. Secondly, this article summarizes the effects of loneliness on consumption behavior from four aspects, including compensatory consumption behavior, avoidance consumption behavior, irrational consumption behavior, and uniqueness consumption behavior, respectively. Thirdly, this article analyzes and sorts out the triggering mechanisms and situational factors of loneliness-induced consumption behaviors, respectively. According to the Evolutionary Theory of Loneliness, this article contends that, the psychological needs (e.g., seeking social connection, restoring a sense of control, and seeking a sense of meaning in life) activated by transiently lonely consumers, who are influenced by the approach motive for restoring self-difference, will induce compensatory consumption behaviors. The social avoidance tendency activated by chronically lonely consumers, who are influenced by the avoidance motive for self-preservation in the short term, will induce avoidance consumption behaviors. At the same time, constant vigilance for social threats and the negative emotions it produces (e.g., anxiety) due to social avoidance may deplete lonely consumers’ self-regulatory resources, which will induce irrational consumption behaviors. The need for uniqueness activated by chronically lonely consumers, who are influenced by the avoidance motive for self-preservation in the long term, will induce uniqueness consumption behavior. In addition, loneliness motivates consumers to induce these above consumption behaviors will be influenced by factors such as consumers' intimacy status, marketing strategies, product attributes, and consumption contexts. Finally, the article explains the influence mechanisms of loneliness on various types of consumption behaviors based on different perspectives such as social surrogacy theory, sense of control theory, compensatory consumption behavior theory, self-regulation theory, and personality trait theory. Although many valuable results have been obtained from existing research on the effects of loneliness on consumer behavior, there are still some key issues that need to be addressed by future research. This article proposes that future research shall pay more attention to the impact of loneliness on altruistic consumption behavior (e.g., examining the effects of loneliness on pro-social consumption behavior or sustainable consumption behavior), the differential effects of type and degree of loneliness on consumption behavior (e.g., examining the differential effects of transient and chronic loneliness on consumption behavior), the potential moderators of loneliness-induced consumption behavior (e.g., exploring the boundary variables of loneliness-induced consumption behavior in terms of consumers' physiological activities, personality traits, and social characteristics), the internal mechanisms of loneliness-induced consumption behavior (e.g., attempting to explore the internal mechanisms of loneliness-induced consumption behavior from the cognitive-emotional dual processing path), as well as the reverse impact of consumption behavior on loneliness (e.g., clarifying the differential effects of consumption behavior on individual loneliness in the short and long term). Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The social motivation theory of autism spectrum disorder: Exploring mechanisms and interventions KOU Juan, YANG Mengyuan, WEI Zijie, LEI Yi Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (1): 20-32.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00020 Abstract （2462）   HTML （160）    PDF（pc） （853KB）（2636）       Knowledge map    Save Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) comprises symptoms including social communication deficits and unusual repetitive and restrictive sensory-motor behaviors. Social motivation deficits play a central role in ASD social function impairment, which has been proposed in the social motivation theory. Social motivation may be parsed into four components, including social orienting and social reward (seeking and liking), social reward learning, and social maintenance. Previous studies emphasized the necessity of exploring its components systematically and structurally. However, research on early age children with ASD is rare. Objective hallmarks of the social motivation theory of autism and exploring interventions based on it are limited. To produce robust behavioral hallmarks and uncover its brain mechanisms, in the current study we will explore social motivation theory’s components and the relationship among them and develop effective intervention methods. Study 1 we will apply an experimental design to explore early neural and atypical eye movements brain bio-markers using social reward and orienting paradigms by means of eye-tracking and functional near-infrared spectroscopy tools. Ninety ASD and typically developing children will be recruited. Then, based on valid markers detected in Study 1, we will investigate the effect of a social reward-based learning strategy in Study 2 to determine whether it is helpful to strengthen social rewards and other components’ functions, and to improve the relationships among them. Ninety children with ASD will be recruited for Study 2. Forty-five children will undergo Gaze-Contingent Music Reward Therapy (12 weeks). The other 45 will perform a non-rewarding music listening control task. All participants in Study 2 will be evaluated for valid social rewards and social orienting from Study 1 and an assessment of social maintenance before and after the interventions. Thus, the findings may detect unusual hallmarks based on social motivation theory and identify treatment strategies to enhance social motivational processing. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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A meta-analysis of the relationship between perceived social support and student academic achievement: The mediating role of student engagement WU Jiahui, FU Hailun, ZHANG Yuhuan Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (4): 552-569.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00552 Abstract （2439）   HTML （202）    PDF（pc） （982KB）（2699）       Knowledge map    Save Academic achievement can be considered as a measure of student's knowledge level and adaptation to school. As a valid indicator for quantitatively assessing the effectiveness of national education, academic achievement has become a key concern for students, parents, schools, and society. While intrinsic motivation is important in the process of increasing academic achievement goals, extrinsic support is equally essential for students. In recent years, empirical studies based on social cognitive theory have analyzed the relationship between social support and academic achievement, revealing that perceived social support is more predictive and functional. With continuing advances in developmental psychology, current research is increasingly focusing on the mediating mechanisms between perceived social support and academic achievement. Student engagement is a specific indicator of student involvement in the learning process and an important measure of learning competence; thus, it can positively and significantly predict academic achievement. However, there are no uniform findings on how perceived social support and its sub-indicators affect academic achievement, and the extent to which both are influenced by student engagement factors has not thus far been definitively addressed. In addition, the current meta-analysis failed to comprehensively validate the correlation between perceived social support and academic achievement, exploring only the relationship between the three indicators of perceived social support and academic achievement, and the study tended to focus on a single dimension such as autonomy support. Moreover, current meta-analyses have not yet comprehensively revealed the mediating role of student engagement, with most studies focusing on integrating effect sizes and exploring possible moderating variables, using samples that do not involve mediating variables or the studies have devoted themselves to exploring the effects of multiple factors (e.g., individuals' cognitive and non-cognitive factors) and their chained relationships on academic achievement, with inclusion samples covering multiple mediating variables. In light of this, the current study classified perceived social support based on the microsystems that most directly influence student development in ecological systems theory and used meta-analysis to obtain reliable estimates of effect sizes, mediating effects of student engagement, and a range of moderating effects in conjunction with self-system processes theory. A total of 41 empirical research and 78 studies were included through literature retrieval. The results were as follows: (1) There was a significant positive correlation between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement; however, because the effect values were small, a weak correlation was indicated, with perceived social support as a whole having the strongest correlation, followed by perceived teacher support, perceived parental support, and perceived peer support. In addition, perceived social support and its sub-indicators were found to be positively related to student engagement. The effect of perceived social support and its sub-indicators on student engagement was higher than academic achievement. (2) Student grade moderated the relationship between perceived teacher support and academic achievement only. Academic achievement indicators moderated the link between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement, while the moderating effects of economic level and cultural background on the relationship between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement were not significant. (3) The direct effect pathway between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement showed a significant positive correlation. Student engagement partially mediated the effect of perceived social support and its sub-indicators on academic achievement. In addition, the partial mediating effect of student engagement was only significant for students in the junior high school group and not for the senior high school group. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Can learning by non-interactive teaching promote learning? CHENG Meixia, KUANG Ziyi, LENG Xiaoxue, ZHANG Yang, WANG Fuxing Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (5): 769-782.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00769 Abstract （2383）   HTML （93）    PDF（pc） （978KB）（2286）       Knowledge map    Save As a generative learning activity, learning by non-interactive teaching refers to learners play the role of teachers and teach what they have learned to others, and the activity is designed to help learners actively engage in knowledge building and improve their academic performance. For example, learners face a video camera to explain the learning material to imaginary, non-present peers in their minds (i.e., recording an instructional video). Given the vastly different ways in which learning by non-interactive teaching was implemented (e.g., video, audio, and text), the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in facilitating learning might be different. By summarizing the relevant studies, it was found that learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form with a tutor figure (e.g. video) was more effective in improving learner’s performance (d immediate comprehension = 0.56, d delayed comprehension = 0.63, d immediate transfer = 0.35, and d delayed transfer = 0.76) compared with simple learning activities such as restudy and retrieval practice, which was probably a better implementation. Learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form (e.g. audio only, d immediate comprehension = 0.09 and d immediate transfer = 0.02) or written form (e.g. text, d immediate comprehension = -0.16, d delayed comprehension = 0.39, d immediate transfer = 0.08, and d delayed transfer = 0.19) without a tutor figure had a smaller positive effect on learning outcomes. Learners with non-interactive teaching also experienced higher motivation (d = 0.44) and enjoyment (d = 0.76) and were willing to invest more mental effort (d = 0.47). The retrieval practice hypothesis and the generative learning hypothesis focused on different subcomponents of cognitive processing (e.g., retrieval, generation, or monitoring) to explain the positive effects of learning by non-interactive teaching on learning, respectively. The social presence hypothesis emphasized that social presence might facilitate whole cognitive processing and thus improved learning. Our results supported these three hypotheses to some extent. In addition, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) may provide a supplementary explanation for differences in the effectiveness of different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching. On the one hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., video) might successfully create teaching situation that stimulated a moderate sense of social presence and leaded learners to be more engaged and think more deeply about the material, i.e., increased their essential processing and generative processing, and thus facilitated learning. On the other hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., text) might distract learners from focusing too much on the typos, the standardization and rigorousness of written language, i.e., increased their extraneous processing. Due to the inherently high demands for processing capacity in generative activities, too much extraneous processing might cause learners' limited processing capacity being insufficient for adequate essential processing and generative processing, which in turn impaired learning. While learning by non-interactive teaching in the audio-only format might neither successfully facilitate learning with essential processing and generative processing because of the weaker teaching situation created, nor hinder learning with extraneous processing because of the automated spoken language. Research is needed to test and integrate theories, identify boundary conditions, and enhance the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in the future. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Impact and application of affective touch on mental health YANG Xue, ZHU Xu Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (12): 2789-2798.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.02789 Abstract （2293）   HTML （142）    PDF（pc） （725KB）（2979）       Knowledge map    Save Daily human touch varies in its forms, frequencies, and experiences. While some types of touch are pleasurable, others can be undesirable. The pleasure of affective touch relies on C-tactile afferents, a class of low-threshold mechanosensitive neurons that innervate the hairy skin. The affective aspect of touch is encoded by C-tactile afferents, and an interpersonal gentle touch is within the sensitive stimulus range of C-tactile, which is commonly applied to express or believed to transmit positive emotions such as love, care, and appreciation. Affective touch refers to these types of touching behaviors, and has positive impacts on individual mental health. Affective touch has the physiological capacity to monitor psychological stress by regulating the level of endogenous hormones such as oxytocin, β-endorphin, dopamine, and serotonin. Affective touch can also be seen psychologically as an adaptive social function that fosters relationships, brings about positive feelings, and enhances subjective well-being. Human has the inherent ability to experience the pleasure of touch, but the acquired environment also plays a critical role. Touch is a type of sensory experience that is closely tied to psychology and culture, and our perceptions of touch are influenced by our subjective cognitive processes. Early experiences of touch and sociocultural factors work together to shape an individual's internal pattern of touch processing. Individuals may interpret touch behaviors in a more prosocial way when they have a positive internal pattern of touch processing, and they can actively engage in affective touch to foster closeness and strengthen social bonds. On the contrary, individuals' subjective aversion and avoidance of touch behaviors are related to negative internal pattern of touch processing, which is shaped by adverse early experiences such as tactile deprivation and childhood abuse. A lack of pleasant touch experiences is related to insecure attachment and various mental disorders especially personality disorders and autism spectrum disorders. Individuals with inadequate functioning of affective touch or a negative internal pattern of touch processing may likely feel disgusted by and thus avoid touch activities, which can compromise the social benefits that come with touch, lead to chronic social withdrawal, and result in aberrant social development. Touch can aid the treatment of people with mental disorders in addition to safeguarding the mental health of the general population. It is likely that people's lifestyles lack affective touch, and the value of affective touch as an embodied social relationship may be underestimated in daily life. However, affective touch is barred from playing an appropriate significant role in treatment because of the ethical concerns with touching behaviors. Distinct from traditional types of touch, mediated touch and virtual touch elicit touch-like sensations through either other sensory information or other devices as the medium. They can be applied as a transitional or alternative intervention to help people avoidant to real touch correct their negative internal pattern of touch processing so that they can gradually adapt to and accept affective touch, and eventually use affective touch as an effective way to improve their interpersonal functioning and mental health. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The second type of mediated moderation WANG Yang, WEN Zhonglin, WANG Huihui, GUAN Fang Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (9): 2131-2142.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.02131 Abstract （2264）   HTML （75）    PDF（pc） （854KB）（1608）       Knowledge map    Save Mediated moderation (meMO) accounts for the moderating effect of a moderator (W) on the relationship between an independent variable (X) and a dependent variable (Y) transmitted through a mediator (M). It has been widely applied in psychological studies. However, the traditional meMO (also known as the first type of meMO, or meMO-I) is difficult to interpret, and thus, researchers often misapply it. In this regard, the second type of meMO (meMO-II), which has been in the foreground in recent years, can better articulate the definition of meMO. meMO-II indicates that the moderating effect of W on X→Y is mediated by an intervening variable, M, which is affected by W initially. An important theoretical implication of meMO-II is that it reveals how W moderates the effect of X on Y, for which meMO-I has limited applicability. We compare and contrast meMO-II with other models that combine moderation and mediation. Then, we demonstrate the analytical procedure behind meMO-II. We conducted this analysis in three steps. The first step was to test whether there was a total moderating effect of W on X and Y. With Y as the dependent variable, we performed a hierarchical regression analysis in which the independent variable X and moderator W are entered first into the regression, followed by the interaction term XW. If there is a total moderating effect, this will be confirmed by XW's regression coefficient being statistically significant and ΔR2 being high enough (e.g., ≥ 0.02 or even ≥ 0.03). The second step was to test whether there was an indirect moderating effect. If the regression coefficient a1of W from the regression of M to W, and the coefficient b2from interaction term XM from the regression of Y to X, W, M, XW and XM, are significant, respectively, then the indirect moderating effect is significant (causal steps approach). If at least one coefficient was insignificant, we would apply the bootstrap method with higher power to test the product coefficient a1b2 directly. If the 95% bootstrap confidence interval of a1b2did not contain 0, the indirect moderating effect was significant (product of coefficients approach). The third step was to conduct a simple slope analysis. In accordance with the relation between the moderators W and M, we fixed the two variables at a set level to investigate the difference in the effect of X on Y at different points. This method is known as the pick-a-point technique. The Johnson-Neyman (J-N) technique can also be adopted to identify the range of W values for which the main effect between the X and Y is significant. Furthermore, we applied the above procedure to an empirical study as an illustration. Then, we present two analytical methods of meMO-II based on latent variables: latent moderated structural equations (LMS) and the factor score approach (FS). Several recent advances in modeling approach of meMO-II, including variable system (VS) and two-level mediated moderation (2meMO) are also introduced. As for VS, the product of path coefficients from XW→XM→Y is employed as the index of indirect moderation by multiplying X to the regression of M to W. Thus the disadvantages of endogeneity, incoherent paths and confusion about meMO-II, and the second-stage moderated mediation model in meMO-II, can be mitigated, whereas 2meMO uses error term partitioning in a multi-level model as a reference, applying the random effect of X on Y to the meMO-II model. This saves the trouble of verifying the homoscedasticity assumption. Additionally, this paper also presents several effect sizes concerning indirect moderation. These include the ratio of the indirect moderating effect divided by the total moderating effect, υ (i.e., the square of a1b2), and an effect size based on the variance decomposition of coefficients ϕMO_ind(i.e., the ratio of the variance of a1b2 to the total variance of the path coefficients from X→Y). Finally, we present the variant models of meMO-II, including multiple indirect moderation, suppression effect in moderation, multi-level indirect moderation, indirect moderation of categorical variables, moderated indirect moderation and indirectly moderated mediation. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of sleep on fear learning and its cognitive neural mechanisms ZHANG Jie, ZHANG Huoyin, LI Hong, LEI Yi Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (4): 631-640.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00631 Abstract （2238）   HTML （137）    PDF（pc） （671KB）（1948）       Knowledge map    Save Sleep problems may induce fear-related mood disorders such as anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and phobias, among others. Studying the cognitive cognitive and neural mechanisms involved in the relationship between sleep problems and fear learning can help enhance the prediction, diagnosis, and treatment of fear-related mood disorders. Previous studies have shown that sleep deprivation affects fear acquisition mainly by inhibiting the activity of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and blocking its functional connections with the amygdala, resulting in impaired safe learning that fails to inhibit fear of threatening stimuli, thus enhancing fear acquisition. In contrast, sleep deprivation during the fear memory consolidation phase impairs the activity of the amygdala and hippocampus, thereby impairing fear memory. On the other hand, sleep deprivation during the extinction learning phase results in delayed activation of brain regions associated with extinction learning, which in turn impairs fear extinction memory. Further studies have reported that different stages of sleep have distinct effects on brain regions associated with fear learning; in particular, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep deprivation (insufficient) and complete sleep deprivation have similar effects on the cognitive and neural mechanisms of fear learning. Deprivation of REM sleep suppresses vmPFC activity, enhances amygdala activation, and thus enhances fear acquisition. In addition, reduced functional connectivity in the limbic cortex disrupts fear memory consolidation. Deprivation of REM sleep after extinction learning phase increases amygdala, insula, and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) activity and diminishes mPFC, thereby impairing extinction memory. Therefore, after clinical treatment, quality of sleep, particularly REM sleep, should be ensured at night. In addition to reinforcing recently acquired memories, REM sleep is involved in integrating new information into existing knowledge structures, reorganizing these structures, and generalizing recently acquired memories; therefore, improving REM sleep can promote fading retention and generalization. In contrast, the slow-wave sleep (SWS) stage facilitates fear extinction learning through target memory reactivation, which allows the hippocampus to re-code threatening stimuli and accelerate the consolidation of new safety information in the amygdala. During the SWS stage, participants are not conscious and therefore do not have to directly face the threatening stimulus, thus avoiding some of the drawbacks of traditional extinction therapy applied during wakefulness for patients with fear-related mood disorders, such as anxiety disorders and (PTSD). Clinically relevant studies have found that individuals with insomnia also exhibit delayed activation of the fear extinction brain regions, with related activation occurring only during extinction recall. At the same time, individuals with insomnia have stronger learned fear which causes their insomnia and can easily develop into pathological anxiety or PTSD. Furthermore, sleep immediately following exposure therapy can optimize the therapeutic effect and may even promote extinction generalization; therefore, sleep should be used in combination with traditional exposure therapy. Future research should be conducted to further the study of the neural mechanisms by which sleep affects fear generalization and the effect of circadian rhythm disruption on fear extinction, as well as clarifying the problems in the translation of animal sleep studies to human sleep studies. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Behavioral intervention strategies to nudge smoking cessation ZHANG Ning, WANG Anran Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (4): 684-696.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00684 Abstract （2225）   HTML （107）    PDF（pc） （863KB）（2001）       Knowledge map    Save Smoking is one of the major public health challenges around the world. Traditional tobacco control strategies, which include health education, taxes on tobacco products, and restrictions on smoking in public spaces, have greatly contributed to the reduction of smoking behavior around the world. However, these strategies are not always effective in helping smokers successfully quit smoking. As the traditional strategies do not consider the “irrational characteristics” of smoking behavior and its underlying mechanisms, their effects are usually discounted in real-world contexts. Recent advances in applied behavioral sciences during the past several decades provide new approaches for nudging smokers to quit smoking, which could be used to develop more effective tobacco control strategies at both the individual and population level. This article systematically reviews recent empirical research on behavioral intervention strategies to nudge smoking cessation according to the framework developed by Duckworth and colleagues for improving self-control. Specifically, behavioral nudge interventions for promoting smoking cessation could be classified by the people or organization implementing the intervention (e.g., smokers versus governments and public health agencies) and their underlying mechanisms (e.g., cognitively oriented versus context oriented). Context oriented interventions implemented by governments and public health agencies include reducing the accessibility of tobacco retail outlets in residence areas, restricting the display of tobacco products in stores and supermarkets, so as to reduce exposure of tobacco products, offering smaller size of cigarette products, and establishing separate smoking areas and removing tobacco-related irritants from the environment; cognitively oriented interventions implemented by governments and public health agencies include printing prominent warning pictures on cigarette packets, removing marketing information from cigarette packs, and increasing the usage of smoking cessation services; context oriented interventions implemented by smokers include making a public commitment to stop smoking and inviting important others to monitor one’s smoking behavior, using loss aversion to motivate quitting behavior among smokers; cognitively oriented interventions implemented by smokers include making specific, actionable smoking cessation programs, promoting a future-oriented time perspective, and cultivating incremental theories of smoking behavior. This framework makes it easier for governments and smokers to select appropriate behavioral nudge interventions. It also has implications for informing the development of culturally sensitive and adaptive behavioral intervention strategies for promoting smoking cessation in China, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions, and contributing to the achievement of the “Tobacco Control Initiatives” of the “Healthy China 2030 Initiatives”. Although there is progress in developing effective behavioral nudge interventions for smoking cessation, future research is warranted to comprehensively evaluate the effects of these interventions, including both positive and negative effects, short-term and long-term effects, especially in real-world contexts. Future research is also needed to adopt behavioral change strategies in the development of stop-smoking APPs and digital smoking cessation services. By fully understanding the irrational characteristics of smoking behavior and its underlying mechanisms, we can develop tailored, targeted, context adaptable, and applicable smoking cessation intervention strategies. These types of interventions can greatly increase the effectiveness and efficiency of smoking cessation services. Future research is also needed to preclude the negative impacts of e-cigarettes and prevent the misuse of these behavior nudge strategies, especially among young children and adolescents who are vulnerable to the attraction of e-cigarettes. We believe that behavior science-informed interventions, if successfully implemented with the collaboration of governments, public health agencies, and smokers, can greatly contribute to safeguarding the health of both smokers and the general public. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics