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Conceptual Framework

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The impact and mechanism of reward on short-term monocular deprivation effect SONG Fangxing, FENG Guang, BAO Min 2026, 34 (6):  919-931.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.0919 Abstract ( 89 )   PDF (1907KB) ( 75 )   Peer Review Comments An important goal in neuroscience is to understand and control brain plasticity, with ocular dominance plasticity being a particularly active area of research. Ocular dominance refers to the phenomenon in which one eye exhibits functional superiority to the other. One extreme pathological manifestation of ocular dominance is amblyopia. Ocular dominance is not fixed but can shift in response to visual experiences, which demonstrates its plasticity. Classic neuroscience research suggests that ocular dominance plasticity is most pronounced during the critical period of development, yet adult’s ocular dominance remains relatively stable. By contrast, recent studies on short-term monocular deprivation have shown that adults retain a certain degree of ocular dominance plasticity. To date, pursuing more effective methods for reshaping adult’s ocular dominance remains to be an active research topic, which is crucial for treating adult amblyopia. Recent studies have highlighted that top-down attention, in addition to visual input, can also modulate ocular dominance. These findings provide a novel theoretical basis for refining the traditional monocular deprivation paradigm that relies solely on visual input. While some studies have started to explore the role of attention in modulating the short-term monocular deprivation effects, research in this direction remains limited. Notably, brain plasticity can be regulated by reward, e.g. combining reward with training can enhance learning and facilitate neurorehabilitation. Building on these insights, integrating rewards with short-term monocular deprivation may offer a novel and effective approach to promoting ocular dominance plasticity in adults. To date, it remains unclear whether reward can modulate short-term monocular deprivation effects, and the underlying mechanisms require further elucidation. To address these issues, we will propose three studies that employ an innovative short-term monocular deprivation paradigm incorporating rewards, alongside the use of behavioral, EEG, fMRI, and TMS techniques, to systematically investigate the influences of reward on short-term monocular deprivation effects and its underlying cognitive-neural mechanisms. Specifically, study 1 will seek to investigate whether reward could enhance the effects of short-term monocular deprivation. This study will be composed of two experiments. Experiment 1 will examine the impact of reward on the short-term monocular deprivation effect by measuring perceptual ocular dominance, while Experiment 2 will employ EEG technology to assess the role of reward in modulating the neural effect of short-term monocular deprivation. Study 2 will aim to elucidate the potential mechanisms through which reward modulate the short-term monocular deprivation effect. This study will consist of three experiments. Experiment 3 will investigate whether task-irrelevant reward (i.e., reward not dependent on attention) can regulate the short-term monocular deprivation effect, thereby shedding light on the role of attention in the modulation of monocular deprivation effects by reward. Experiments 4 and 5 will integrate fMRI and TMS techniques to uncover the causal mechanisms by which reward influences the short-term monocular deprivation effect. Study 3 will evaluate whether the introduction of reward in short-term monocular deprivation training may produce better treatments for adult amblyopia. The study plans to recruit two groups of amblyopic patients: one group will undergo traditional short-term monocular deprivation training, while the other will receive reward-based short-term monocular deprivation training. Visual acuity, stereoscopic vision, and perceptual ocular dominance will be assessed pre- and post-training to assess the efficacy of the reward-based training. This study elucidates how bottom-up visual input (monocular deprivation) and top-down cognitive regulation (reward) collaboratively modulate ocular dominance, thereby advancing the understanding of short-term ocular dominance plasticity. Furthermore, comprehending this interaction will deepen our insight into how the brain adapts its functions in response to both external stimuli and internal cognitive states, enriching our broader understanding of human vision and brain plasticity. Additionally, by integrating reward-based methods with short-term monocular deprivation, this study holds the potential to offer a more effective approach for reshaping adult ocular dominance, thereby contributing to the development of innovative treatment strategies for adult amblyopia. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The formation mechanism and effectiveness of the human-machine symbiotic experience LI Chunqing, HAO Riyan, LIU Wei 2026, 34 (6):  932-952.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.0932 Abstract ( 117 )   PDF (962KB) ( 128 )   Peer Review Comments This study advances beyond the traditional “human-centered” paradigm of experience research by constructing a theoretical framework of Human-Machine Symbiotic Experience (HSX) that treats the “human-machine assemblage” as the core unit of analysis. It emphasizes that experience does not originate solely from isolated individual cognition, but rather emerges as a relational outcome during continuous interaction between humans and intelligent machines. HSX is characterized by functional coupling, adaptive co-evolution, and value co-creation. First, at the conceptual level, this study provides a precise definition of HSX. Contrary to conventional views that equate experience with individual subjective feelings, HSX is defined here as a holistic subjective experience formed through the continuous interaction between humans and intelligent systems, reflecting the perceived state and evolution of the human-machine relationship. Meanwhile, the study does not attribute consciousness, emotion, or sentience to machines. Instead, it conceptualizes machine-side components from a functional perspective, referring to observable operational states such as algorithmic response patterns, system feedback structures, and learning trajectories. This definitional choice avoids philosophical and psychological category confusions while offering clear and operational theoretical boundaries for subsequent empirical measurement. Second, the study proposes a developmental path model for HSX formation based on human-machine matching and co-evolution mechanisms. Three distinct developmental patterns are identified: Model I (unidirectional-passive), Model II (bidirectional-passive), and Model III (bidirectional-active). More importantly, the study introduces the concept of the “experience gap,” arguing that transitions from Model II to Model III are hindered by multidimensional barriers, including cognitive gaps (e.g., expectation violations and increased cognitive load), emotional gaps (e.g., discomfort and distrust induced by the uncanny valley effect), and behavioral gaps (e.g., mismatches between human action rhythms and machine learning rhythms). This framework not only explains why higher-order human-machine symbiosis remains difficult to achieve, but also offers a theoretical foundation for bridging these gaps. Third, based on the above theoretical construction, the study proposes a multi-dimensional measurement framework for HSX, incorporating both human experiential dimensions and machine functional dimensions. This measurement design provides an analytically rigorous and operational tool for future empirical validation, and establishes a methodological basis for examining the structural properties and causal pathways of HSX. Finally, at the theoretical level, the study hypothesizes that HSX may generate a “dual-helix effect” on individual and societal outcomes. On one hand, well-balanced HSX may enhance well-being, engagement, learning performance, and value co-creation intentions. On the other hand, imbalanced or excessive HSX may induce negative consequences such as decision dependence, emotional substitution, and ethical risks. Furthermore, these effects are not linear or one-directional; rather, they feed back into and reshape subsequent HSX formation processes, resulting in positive or negative spiral dynamics. The study also identifies key boundary conditions that influence both the formation and effects of HSX, thereby enabling the amplification of positive outcomes and mitigation of potential risks to support the sustainable development of human-machine symbiosis. In conclusion, this research advances the theoretical system of HSX by: (1) clarifying the conceptual meaning and structural dimensions of HSX, (2) revealing the dynamic emergence and stage-based evolution of HSX, and (3) elucidating the mechanisms and boundary conditions affecting HSX outcomes. These contributions not only address the practical challenges of reconfiguring human-machine relations in the digital intelligence era, but also offer important theoretical support for “AI+” strategic initiatives and enterprise intelligent transformation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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From tasks to people: How workplace multitasking shapes social behavior YANG Jianfeng, LV Xin, MING Xiaodong, XIE Peng 2026, 34 (6):  953-970.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.0953 Abstract ( 127 )   PDF (737KB) ( 127 )   Peer Review Comments In the context of rapid AI development, economic uncertainty, and ubiquitous connectivity, multitasking has become an important feature of the modern workplace. Existing research has primarily focused on how multitasking affects individual task-related outcomes, such as speed, accuracy, and creativity. However, this line of inquiry has paid insufficient attention to the social behavioral consequences of multitasking—namely, how it influences interpersonal outcomes for both multitaskers and their coworkers. This narrow focus is problematic, as it constrains our understanding of both the scope and the targets of multitasking’s influence. To address this limitation, the present research develops a novel theoretical framework and empirical agenda for understanding the social consequences of multitasking. Drawing on Conservation of Resources (COR) theory and the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) framework, the study reconceptualizes multitasking as a process-oriented phenomenon and examines its effects on social behavior through both intrapersonal and interpersonal pathways. The first major contribution lies in the development of a multidimensional, process-oriented model of multitasking, which moves beyond the dominant one-dimensional, quantity-based conceptualization. Existing measures primarily quantify the number of tasks performed simultaneously, failing to capture the cognitive and behavioral complexities involved. In contrast, this research introduces a “multitasking funnel model,” which conceptualizes multitasking as unfolding across four sequential stages: perception (awareness of concurrent demands), selection (prioritization of task importance), processing (strategic planning and mental engagement), and response (behavioral execution and task-switching). Based on this model, we developed a new psychometrically validated scale that captures individuals’ engagement with multitasking across each stage, offering a more precise lens through which to understand how multitasking depletes resources and varies across individuals. Building on this construct, the second set of studies investigates how multitasking shapes the multitasker’s own social behavior, focusing on both cognitive and emotional mechanisms. Because multitasking depletes cognitive and emotional resources, it impairs moral awareness (the ability to recognize ethical implications in a situation) and diminishes empathic concern (the tendency to care about others’ well-being). These impairments, in turn, increase the likelihood of engaging in unethical and counterproductive behaviors while reducing prosocial behaviors such as inclusivity and helping. Moreover, the effects are contingent on individuals’ regulatory focus. Those with a promotion focus are more likely to interpret multitasking as a challenge, which facilitates resource conservation—or even resource gain. In contrast, individuals with a prevention focus are more prone to interpret multitasking as a threat, which exacerbates resource depletion and intensifies its negative behavioral consequences. The third study shifts the focus from multitaskers to coworkers and reveals that multitasking also produces interpersonal spillover effects. When employees observe a colleague engaging in high levels of multitasking, they may interpret it as a signal of rising workplace expectations, leading to a perceived expansion of their own job boundaries—a phenomenon known as job creep. This perception of resource threat may then reduce their willingness to help the multitasker and even provoke deviant behaviors as a form of retaliation or self-protection. Conversely, if the observed multitasking is attributed to team contribution or individual excellence, it can evoke a sense of collective pride, encouraging coworkers to offer more support and suppress negative reactions. These divergent interpretations are moderated by organizational identification: employees with high identification with the organization are more likely to view multitasking positively and experience pride, whereas those with low identification are more likely to perceive threat and respond defensively. This research offers three key theoretical contributions. First, it reconceptualizes multitasking as a multi-stage process rather than a unidimensional construct, thereby providing a more robust theoretical foundation for understanding how multitasking unfolds and why it yields heterogeneous outcomes across individuals and contexts. Second, it expands the scope of multitasking research by shifting the focus from task performance to social behavior, better reflecting the collaborative and interdependent nature of contemporary organizational life. Third, it extends the theoretical lens beyond the multitasker to include coworkers, emphasizing how multitasking behaviors are socially observed and how these observations shape others’ cognitive and emotional responses, which in turn influence their own subsequent social behaviors. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of residential mobility on consumer behavior: An identity management perspective XIAO Haowen, WU Yuying, WU Tong 2026, 34 (6):  971-991.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.0971 Abstract ( 90 )   PDF (669KB) ( 109 )   Peer Review Comments Residential mobility has become a salient feature of contemporary life. Prior work in marketing and psychology has documented that mobility can shape consumer preferences through diverse mechanisms. However, existing evidence remains fragmented and sometimes contradictory, partly because most studies implicitly treat identity as a single, unitary construct and examine one dominant pathway at a time. This paper advances an identity management perspective to integrate and reconcile these mixed findings. We argue that residential mobility reshapes consumers’ identity structure (from relatively stable, bounded identities to more dynamic and multi-layered identities), which in turn activates distinct identity management motives. These motives systematically guide downstream consumption choices, producing divergent behavioral outcomes across contexts and individuals. Building on Forehand et al.’s (2021) identity management framework, we develop an integrative model that links residential mobility to consumer responses through changes in multiple identities and the activation of identity management motives. The model is organized around three core identity management pathways: (1) reducing identity inconsistency, (2) maintaining identity balance, and (3) compensatory consumption. Each pathway is examined in a dedicated sub-study with clearly specified psychological mediators and theoretically grounded boundary conditions. Our overarching contribution is not simply to show that mobility “changes consumption,” but to explain when, why, and for whom residential mobility activates particular identity management strategies, thereby reconciling seemingly conflicting findings in prior research. Study 1 (Reducing identity inconsistency): Mobility and identity-relevant consumption. We theorize that residential mobility reduces self-concept clarity (SCC) by disrupting identity continuity and increasing exposure to heterogeneous cultural and social contexts. Lower SCC motivates consumers to seek self-diagnostic cues and restore identity coherence through identity-relevant consumption. Thus, we predict that high (vs. low) residential mobility increases preferences for identity-expressive products, mediated by diminished SCC. Importantly, we introduce product materiality as a boundary condition: because physical products provide stronger permanence, possession-based reassurance, and symbolic stability than digital alternatives, mobility’s effect on identity-relevant consumption should be stronger for physical (vs. digital) products. This study contributes to the literature by connecting mobility to SCC as a precise identity mechanism and by explaining why dematerialized consumption may be less effective for identity repair under mobility. Study 2 (Maintaining identity balance): Mobility, self-construal, and risk decision-making via optimal distinctiveness. A key unresolved question is whether mobility increases risk aversion (through uncertainty and loss focus) or increases risk taking (through openness and adaptability). We reconcile these findings by proposing a contingent effect driven by identity-balance motives grounded in Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (ODT). Mobility destabilizes consumers’ social anchoring and identity balance, but its effect is moderated by consumers’ self-construal. For independent consumers, mobility heightens differentiation needs, encouraging distinctiveness signaling via comparatively riskier choices. For interdependent consumers, mobility heightens assimilation needs, encouraging conformity and relationship maintenance via safer choices. Accordingly, we predict an interaction: mobility increases risk-taking among independent consumers but decreases it among interdependent consumers. We further posit a dual mediation mechanism: differentiation needs account for the positive mobility-risk link among independent consumers, whereas assimilation needs account for the negative link among interdependent consumers. Together, these mechanisms reconcile prior contradictions and identify testable psychological “switches” that shape the direction of mobility’s impact on risk decisions. Study 3 (Compensatory consumption): Mobility and self-improvement consumption through threatened personal control and internal agency. Mobility often entails repeated adaptation demands and weaker social support, which can undermine perceived personal control. Drawing on Compensatory Control Theory, we argue that control threats prompt consumers to adopt strategies that restore agency. We propose that self-improvement consumption (e.g., skill-building services, fitness training, educational courses) serves this function by strengthening internal agency beliefs—confidence in one’s ability to manage challenges. Accordingly, we predict that mobility increases preferences for self-improvement consumption, and that reduced perceived personal control explains this effect. We also identify implicit theories of personality as a boundary condition. Incremental theorists (who view abilities as malleable) are more likely to interpret mobility-related disruption as manageable through effort and thus should show a stronger positive mobility-self-improvement association. Entity theorists (who view abilities as fixed) should show a weaker association because self-improvement is perceived as less efficacious. This study positions self-improvement consumption as an identity-relevant compensatory response to mobility-induced control threat and clarifies who is most likely to adopt this adaptive strategy. Collectively, this research makes three key theoretical contributions to the literature. First, it shifts the analytical focus from single-identity effects to multi-identity dynamics and identity management motives. Second, it provides a unifying framework that explains opposite behavioral directions (e.g., risk aversion vs. risk seeking) through theoretically grounded moderators and motive-based mediators. Third, it introduces actionable boundary conditions—product materiality, self-construal, and implicit personality theories—linking identity processes to concrete marketing decisions (product design, segmentation, and message framing). Practically, our framework suggests that firms can tailor identity-repair cues, risk framing, and self-improvement offerings to consumers facing high mobility, enhancing consumer well-being while improving targeting effectiveness in increasingly fluid social environments. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Meta-Analysis

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The effects of belief in a just world on third-party punishment: A three-level meta-analysis HUANG Chuanbin, WANG Yang, DING Yi, GUO Yongyu 2026, 34 (6):  992-1009.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.0992 Abstract ( 111 )   PDF (1080KB) ( 116 )   Peer Review Comments See injustice and draw your sword against it. Since its proposal, the just world theory has focused on the phenomenon, yet its theoretical hypotheses and empirical findings remain inconsistent. To resolve this controversy and uncover the reasons for the divergent results, we conducted a three-level meta-analysis to systematically examine the effects between belief in a just world (BJW) and third-party punishment (TPP) and its boundary conditions. Through literature search and screening, a total of 46 research papers with 93 effect sizes were included, and the total sample size was 15,772 participants. The main effect analyses revealed a significant but weak positive correlation between BJW and TPP (r = 0.08, 95% CI = [0.03, 0.14], p = 0.006). Moderator analyses indicated that the effect was moderated by the self-other dimension of BJW (F (1, 55) = 6.20, p = 0.016). Specifically, BJW-self was positively correlated with TPP (r = 0.22, 95% CI = [0.09, 0.34], p = 0.001), but the association between BJW-other and TPP was not significant (r = 0.05, 95% CI = [-0.03, 0.14], p = 0.236). The effect was moderated by the form of third-party punishment behavior (F (1, 35) = 10.19, p = 0.003). Specifically, BJW was positively correlated with material punishment (r = 0.30, 95% CI = [0.12, 0.46], p = 0.001), but the association between BJW and social punishment was not significant (r = -0.03, 95% CI = [-0.13, 0.06], p = 0.500). The effect was moderated by the cultural background (F (1, 84) = 4.87, p = 0.030). Specifically, BJW was positively correlated with TPP in collectivistic culture (r = 0.19, 95% CI = [0.09, 0.29], p < 0.001), but the association between BJW and TPP was not significant in individualistic culture (r = 0.05, 95% CI = [-0.01, 0.12], p = 0.105); The effect was moderated by the violation scenario (F (2, 45) = 21.49, p < 0.001). Specifically, BJW was negatively correlated with TPP in the rape scenario (r = -0.10, 95% CI = [-0.15, -0.04], p = 0.002), but positively correlated with TPP in the robbery scenario (r = 0.14, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.24], p = 0.004) and corruption scenario (r = 0.30, 95% CI = [0.19, 0.40], p < 0.001). Notably, the correlation was significantly stronger in the corruption scenario than in the robbery scenario (Z = 2.04, p = 0.041). The effect was moderated by the sample type (F (3, 89) = 2.86, p = 0.041). Specifically, BJW was positively correlated with TPP in college students (Mage = 22.01 , SD = 3.72; r = 0.19, 95% CI = [0.08, 0.28], p < 0.001), but the association between BJW and TPP was not significant in middle and high school students (Mage = 14.58 , SD = 0.60; r = 0.20, 95% CI = [-0.05, 0.43], p = 0.115), non-students group (Mage = 36.32, SD = 8.580; r = 0.17, 95% CI = [-0.01, 0.35], p = 0.068) and mixed group (Mage = 30.92 , SD = 8.30; r = 0.02, 95% CI = [-0.05, 0.09], p = 0.545). However, the association between BJW and TPP was not moderated by observers' gender (β = -0.19, 95% CI = [-0.66, 0.29], p = 0.442), observers' age group (F (2, 70) = 2.53, p = 0.087), the explicit-implicit dimension of BJW (F (1, 88) = 0.02, p = 0.902), the type of third-party punishment (punishment behavior vs. punishment willingness) (F (1, 91) = 0.11, p = 0.739) and research method (F (1, 91) = 0.12, p = 0.726). These findings contribute to addressing the competing hypotheses of the just world theory and specifying its boundary conditions, offering valuable insights for future theoretical development and empirical research. However, we examined the competing hypotheses of the just world theory solely from the perspective of third-party punishment. Future research should comprehensively examine bystanders' responses towards both victims and perpetrators to better clarify these competing hypotheses. Furthermore, the homo economicus and homo socialis perspectives offer inconsistent explanations for the association between BJW and TPP. Future research should further resolve the competing perspectives and explore the underlying mechanisms between BJW and TPP. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Regular Articles

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Cognitive and neural mechanisms of multimodal information integration underlying the sense of direction in spatial navigation ZHANG Junheng, HUANG Lei, LI Kuiliang, WANG Jing, JI Ming 2026, 34 (6):  1010-1034.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.1010 Abstract ( 91 )   PDF (1123KB) ( 126 )   Peer Review Comments Sense of direction refers to an individual’s awareness of their own location and their ability to determine their orientation by relating the self to the surrounding environment (e.g., landmarks and boundaries). It is a fundamental capacity underlying spatial navigation in both humans and animals. Previous research has lacked systematic investigation into the cognitive processes and neural mechanisms involved when individuals establish, maintain, and update their sense of direction during spatial navigation. Building upon previous studies, this review proposes a multimodal information integration cognitive processing model of the sense of direction and provides a detailed examination of its underlying cognitive and neural mechanisms, offering cognitive theoretical support and corresponding neural foundations for sense-of-direction enhancement and spatial perception training in application scenarios that require precise spatial orientation, such as aviation, driving, and virtual reality. Based on a synthesis of previous research, this review proposes both a multimodal information integration model of the sense of direction and a corresponding multimodal neural network model. Specifically, during spatial navigation, individuals establish, maintain, and update their sense of direction through independent encoding of multimodal information—such as visual cues and self-motion cues (vestibular and proprioceptive signals)—Bayesian optimal integration, and interactions with spatial memory. At the neural level, the vestibular system, a series of brainstem nuclei, a series of thalamic nuclei, the retrosplenial cortex, the postsubiculum, and the primary and higher-order visual cortices are activated during multimodal information integration. These nuclei and brain regions contain multiple types of spatially tuned cells, such as head direction cells, angular head velocity cells, and place cells. Through dynamic cooperation, these cells generate neural signals related to an individual’s directional representation. Specifically, early vestibular pathways generate self-motion signals through the encoding and integration of vestibular and proprioceptive information. At a subsequent stage, head direction cells generate head direction signals within ring attractor networks by integrating self-perceived motion signals with visual signals. These head direction signals are then extensively integrated with visual signals across multiple brain regions during ascending signal transmission along the vestibular-visual pathway, providing the cognitive and neural basis for the establishment, maintenance, and updating of the sense of direction. Overall, the establishment, maintenance, and updating of the sense of direction constitute a dynamic, multistage process of multimodal information integration, with the vestibular-visual pathway serving as its primary cognitive and neural foundation. Future research should systematically examine the dynamic multimodal integration mechanisms underlying the sense of direction, particularly by investigating integration modes, integration stages, coupling characteristics, and interactions with memory processes. The scope of information integration should be further expanded, especially under visually restricted conditions, to explore the contributions of auditory, olfactory, and tactile information to the sense of direction, and to identify new patterns of brain activation, such as how the superior temporal gyrus, olfactory cortex, and somatosensory cortex are associated with activation within the multimodal information integration neural network for the sense of direction, thereby further refining the multimodal information integration cognitive processing model and its neural mechanisms. Alternatively, neural computational models of the sense of direction may be constructed, using modular modeling strategies to simulate integration mechanisms among different cell populations (e.g., head direction cells and angular head velocity cells) and brain regions, providing underlying algorithmic logic for the iteration of navigation and orientation technologies in aviation, driving, and virtual reality. In addition, future studies may investigate spatial language interaction mechanisms related to the sense of direction, particularly how individuals externalize multimodally integrated mental representations of the sense of direction into spatial language, and analyze their expression and reception processes in cooperative navigation, thereby optimizing spatial information transmission strategies in human-machine interaction and enhancing collaborative efficiency and navigational experience. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparing the mechanisms of level-1 and level-2 visual perspective taking: Theoretical controversies, behavioral and neuroscientific evidence WANG Jiayin, LI Jing 2026, 34 (6):  1035-1048.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.1035 Abstract ( 82 )   PDF (585KB) ( 60 )   Peer Review Comments Visual Perspective Taking (VPT), the ability to simulate and understand anther's visual experience, is traditionally categorized into two levels: Level-1 (judging visibility, i.e., “what” is seen) and Level-2 (judging appearance, i.e., “how” it is seen). The current theories in this field present two opposing views: Two-systems account proposes that these two processes involve separate but complementary cognitive systems, while single-system account suggests that a unified cognitive system is responsible for both theories, however, struggle to fully explain empirical anomalies. To resolve these inconsistencies, this paper proposes a novel Three-Stage Processing Model. This framework suggests that both levels of VPT undergo three sequential phases: (1) Information Processing, (2) Perspective Simulation, and (3) Information Integration with Response Selection. Stage 1: Information Processing. In this initial stage, both level-1 and level-2 VPT involve the encoding of spatial relationships between the self, others, and objects. However, the depth and scope of this information processing differ. Behavioral evidence suggests that level-1 VPT primarily involves tracking “line-of-sight” paths, requiring relatively shallow representation of whether a physical barrier exists between the agent and the target. In contrast, level-2 VPT demands more fine-grained spatial representation, including the precise orientation and visual morphology of objects as seen from different angles. While both levels share basic spatial encoding in the occipito-parietal cortex, level-2 VPT triggers more extensive activation in dorsal attention and frontoparietal control networks to manage higher representation depth. Stage 2: Perspective Simulation. This stage marks the most significant divergence between the two levels. In level-1 VPT, perspective simulation is a relatively straightforward process that involves quickly tracking the other's line of sight and determining whether an object is visible. This simulation process relies on rapid, non-embodied mechanisms, such as gaze tracking, that do not require significant cognitive resources. In contrast, level-2 VPT engages more complex and embodied processes, often requiring mental rotation or reconfiguration of the reference frame. This embodied simulation involves a shift from the self's reference frame to that of the other, requiring cognitive resources such as body representation and spatial reasoning. Behavioral studies demonstrate that body posture alignment significantly facilitates level-2 VPT but has little effect on level-1 VPT. Neuroscientific data support this, showing that level-2 VPT specifically activates brain regions associated with body representation, such as the Extrastriate Body Area (EBA) and the insula, which are largely inactive during level-1 VPT. Stage 3: Information Integration with Response Selection. In the final stage, individuals must integrate the information gathered in the first two stages and making a final judgment about the object or the other person's perspective. During this stage, both level-1 and level-2 VPT share a common mechanism of integrating information about the other person's intentions and mental states. For instance, when an agent exhibits a goal-directed “reach-to-grasp” action, both level-1 VPT and level-2 VPT performance are enhanced, suggesting a shared understanding of others' psychological states at the response stage. However, level-2 VPT generally requires stronger cognitive control to resolve more complex perspective conflicts. Neural evidence regarding “social brain”—specifically the right Temporoparietal Junction (rTPJ) and dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex (dmPFC)—play a crucial role in managing these conflicts, Although the role of them remains debated, current evidence suggests these regions are likely recruited in both levels when tasks explicitly require processing social intent or involve high interference. In conclusion, we proposes The Three-Stage Processing Model by integrating evidence from behavioural and neuroscience research. And this model offers a unified framework that accommodates the similarities and distinct differences between Level-1 and Level-2 VPT. To further validate and refine this model, future research should focus on developing experimental paradigms to dissociate these three stages, utilizing high-temporal-resolution techniques to map the model's temporal dynamics, and exploring the triggering conditions for embodied mechanisms in VPT-2 and their cross-modal integration. This study provides a comprehensive framework that paves the way for a more unified theory of spatial and social cognition. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Differences in reciprocal behavior between children with autism spectrum disorder and typically developing children: From the perspective of self-other distinction ZHANG Jing, SUN Qingzhou, ZHU Hongying, WANG Qunlong, CHEN Yuhang 2026, 34 (6):  1049-1057.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.1049 Abstract ( 139 )   PDF (551KB) ( 104 )   Peer Review Comments Deviations in reciprocal behavior between children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and typically developing (TD) children often give rise to challenges in inclusive settings. Previous theoretical frameworks based on the perspective of others have presented several contradictions. From the dual-process theory perspective, and by introducing the concept of self-other distinction, it is proposed that the self-centered bias in children with ASD and the other-centered bias in TD children jointly contribute to the differences in reciprocity between the two groups. Specifically, according to dual-process theory, children with ASD demonstrate a stronger preference for logical reasoning, while children with TD show a stronger preference for intuitive reasoning. In different forms of reciprocity, the focus on the ‘self-perspective’ in children with ASD becomes a crucial cue for their logical reasoning responses, thereby promoting their systematic reciprocal responses. In contrast, the focus on the ‘other-perspective’ in children with TD serves as a key cue for their intuitive reasoning responses, thereby promoting their intuitive reciprocal responses. For example, in direct reciprocity, children with ASD have difficulty recognizing the intentional motives behind others’ behaviors. However, in this ‘give-and-take’ form of direct reciprocity, self-gain can form a clear corresponding relationship with the initiator, meaning that all gains come from the initiator. The egocentric bias of this group often leads to a preference for focusing on self-gain and precisely becomes the most intuitive reasoning clue in direct reciprocity. Therefore, children with ASD are more inclined to make non-social reciprocal responses​such as give back exactly what is received. In comparison, children with TD can quickly extract others’ motives during interaction. The other-centric bias of this group often leads to a preference for focusing on others’ intentions and subsequently become the intuitive reasoning clue in direct reciprocity. Thus, children with TD are more inclined to make social reciprocal responses such as ‘tit for tat’. In generalized reciprocity, when facing a third party, the egocentric bias of children with ASD leads to a focus on self-norms. Norms such as equality and fairness, cultivated under traditional cultural influence, subsequently become logical reasoning clues in generalized reciprocity. Therefore, this group is more inclined to make fair responses to the third party, such as ‘Regardless of how you treat me, I will be fair/friendly to others’. In contrast, children with TD are more easily influenced by the cognitive anchoring effect of others’ behaviors during interaction. The other-centric bias of this group often leads to a focus on others’ behaviors, and subsequently become intuitive reasoning clues in generalized reciprocity. Thus, this group is more inclined to make responses that transmit valence, such as ‘You are nice to me, so I will be nice to others; you are mean to me, so I will be mean to others’. In observer reciprocity, children with ASD struggle to understand the social significance of others’ behaviors. However, under the influence of the observer role in observer reciprocity, the egocentric bias of this group further leads to a focus on self-observation, and precisely becomes the most intuitive reasoning clue in observer reciprocity. Therefore, children with ASD are more inclined to make observation-based reciprocal responses such as ‘give based on what was seen’. In contrast, children with TD can quickly recognize the social significance of others’ behaviors in observer reciprocity and make differentiated behavioral responses to different parties. When facing the initiator, children with TD can form correspondent reputation beliefs about the initiator’s behavior. The other-centric bias of this group further leads to a focus on others’ reputation and subsequently becomes the intuitive reasoning clue in observer reciprocity. Therefore, children with TD are more inclined to make reciprocal responses to the initiator such as ‘love begets love; malice begets malice’. When facing the recipient, children with TD can quickly extract the recipient’s situation. The other-centric bias of this group further leads to a focus on others’ situation and subsequently becomes the intuitive reasoning clue in observer reciprocity. Therefore, children with TD are more inclined to make reciprocal responses to the recipient such as ‘I help you because you are disadvantaged; I do not help you because you are advantaged’.​ When facing a third party, compared to generalized reciprocity, children with TD, as observers rather than participants, do not directly receive reciprocal behaviors from others. Therefore, the cognitive anchoring effect of others’ behaviors is weakened. Due to the lack of direct reciprocal experience, children with TD may be more inclined to rely on others’ identity as an intuitive reasoning clue, which is related to their strong other-centric bias. In such scenarios, children with TD are more likely to make reciprocal responses such as fair and equal based on others’ identity. According to dual-process theory, highlighting the other-perspective for children with ASD may induce an other-centric bias, making their reciprocal behaviors more similar to those of children with TD, thereby reducing the reciprocity differences. Future research should disentangle the potential influence of task parameters, conduct in-depth analyses of the differences in reciprocal pathways between the two groups, and develop scientific and effective intervention models for reciprocal behavior. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Parallel psychological crisis intervention: Framework and conceptions QIAO Xue, WANG Jing, GONG Xiaoyan 2026, 34 (6):  1058-1071.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.1058 Abstract ( 99 )   PDF (978KB) ( 70 )   Peer Review Comments Psychological crisis intervention faces challenges due to dynamic, complex, and highly personalized nature of mental states. Traditional methods often suffer from delayed monitoring and a lack of closed-loop optimization. While Large Language Models (LLMs) and multi-agent technologies offer new tools, existing research remains fragmented. This paper introduces Parallel Intelligence into mental health and proposes a conceptual framework: Parallel Psychological Crisis Intervention. Based on the ACP approach (Artificial Systems, Computational Experiments, and Parallel Execution), this framework aims to transform intervention from an experience-driven paradigm to a computable, experimental, and iterative one. The framework begins with the construction of Artificial Psychological Systems (A), which are individual digital twins built from multi-modal data such as physiological signals, behavioral trajectories, and LLM-parsed subjective reports. These artificial systems serve as a virtual laboratory for Computational Experiments (C), allowing practitioners to conduct high-frequency simulations of counterfactual scenarios. This process enables prediction of crisis events and pre-validation of intervention strategies' safety and efficacy, effectively mitigating ethical risks. Finally, Parallel Execution (P) synchronizes the virtual and real worlds, using real-world feedback to continuously calibrate the artificial system. This creates a closed-loop process where the virtual system guides real-world intervention while the real system refines the virtual model. To demonstrate feasibility, the paper develops PsyRescueGPT, an LLM-driven multi-agent system. The architecture integrates five specialized agents: a Perceptive Agent for data fusion, a Predictive Agent for quantifying crisis probabilities via graph neural networks, a Strategic Agent for generating evidence-based plans, an Experimental Agent for virtual validation of emotional responses, and a Decision Agent as a “Human-in-the-loop” hub for clinician supervision. In a proof-of-concept scenario involving acute suicide risk, PsyRescueGPT executes a cohesive collaborative pipeline. The workflow initiates with digital twin updates and risk identification, followed by the formulation of response plans which are virtually tested through counterfactual simulations. The validated outcomes are then presented to clinicians for final approval, proving that the framework can transform fragmented tools into a seamless, verifiable crisis response workflow. The theoretical contribution of this work is a systematic modeling language for psychological complexity, while its practical value lies in providing safe, explainable, and supervised AI-led interventions. Future research will focus on the evolution of parallel agents, cross-cultural assessment validation, and rigorous clinical testing of the PsyRescueGPT prototype in diverse scenarios. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The application of large language model-based intelligent agents in college students' psychological counseling GUO Jing, WANG Pei, MA Yinzhe, CHEN Luxi, GUO Ke, HU Yanxi, LIU He 2026, 34 (6):  1072-1083.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.1072 Abstract ( 173 )   PDF (730KB) ( 158 )   Peer Review Comments Given the increasing complexity of mental health issues among university students and the significant limitations of traditional university counseling models in terms of coverage, response efficiency, and personalized support, this research pioneers an innovative application of artificial intelligence in the field of psychological services. We propose and construct a sophisticated multi-agent collaborative system that deeply integrates vertical domain expertise in psychology with the advanced capabilities of modern large language models. The fundamental objective is to leverage technological empowerment to build an intelligent, sustainable, and dynamically evolvable psychological support ecosystem tailored specifically for the university student population. The system's architecture is built around a core of three functionally distinct psychological counseling agents—namely the Assessor, the Counselor, and the Supervisor—complemented by simulated student agents used for immersive training. This ensemble forms an organically collaborative “Assessment-Counseling-Supervision” tripartite framework. A key innovation lies in its operational mechanism, characterized by a dual-cycle model of “internal cycle training and external cycle service.” Within the secure, closed internal cycle, these agents engage in continuous high-fidelity interactions, rehearse complex scenarios, and refine intervention strategies, thereby accumulating rich, multi-school therapeutic experience alongside detailed personalized case profiles. This internal practice environment is crucial for honing capabilities. Subsequently, during the open external cycle, the system leverages the competencies and knowledge repositories solidified internally to deliver professional, precise, and timely assessment and intervention services to real university students seeking help. This design fundamentally facilitates a systematic enhancement of service quality across three critical dimensions: enhanced professionalism, improved personalization, and strengthened continuity. Regarding professionalism, the system constructs its core competency through a rigorous process of deep knowledge fusion and continuous supervised iteration. First, a comprehensive corpus of structured psychological theories, empirical research findings, typical consultation dialogues, and standardized operational protocols is systematically infused into the foundational large language model. This process endows the Assessor and Counselor agents with profound domain-specific understanding and robust long-term memory, enabling them to formulate structured service strategies based on dynamic evaluations of the client's subjective state. Central to this dimension is the Supervisor agent, which acts as the perpetual quality assurance hub. It monitors consultation sessions in real-time, identifies potential deviations from best practices, and provides corrective feedback. This feedback is then directly integrated into the agents' memory modules, creating a closed-loop “practice-evaluation-learning-optimization” cycle. This iterative process, underpinned by a combination of non-parametric prompt engineering and parametric fine-tuning techniques, drives the system's autonomous evolution and ensures reliable, steady growth in its professional expertise and behavioral precision. In terms of personalization, the system achieves nuanced individual adaptation through dynamic empathy modeling and extensive scenario-based training. The Counselor agent employs advanced empathetic planning algorithms to deeply understand, contextualize, and flexibly respond to the client's diverse emotional expressions and evolving real-time needs, allowing for dynamic adjustment of intervention tactics. To enhance its resilience in complex, open-ended real-world dialogues, the internal training phase utilizes the large model to generate a diverse array of virtual student agents. These agents embody varied personality traits, specific psychological concerns (from academic stress to interpersonal conflicts), and different cultural backgrounds, creating a rich tapestry of simulated interaction scenarios. Within these simulations, the Supervisor analyzes multi-modal cues (textual and paralinguistic information) to track the “client's” state, while the Counselor practices deploying integrated tools such as psychological assessment scales and cognitive-behavioral techniques. This layered, continuous, and scenario-driven training regimen ensures the system's strategies remain highly adaptive and effective, not only for common issues but also within unpredictable conversational flows. Concerning continuity, the system ensures service consistency and longitudinal insight through a dedicated long-term memory architecture. Every critical element of the counseling interaction—key disclosures, assessment scores, implemented intervention plans, and their observed outcomes—is systematically recorded and stored in a structured, interlinked manner within the agents' long-term memory units. This creates a comprehensive, continuously evolving digital psychological profile for each user. Consequently, the system supports truly continuous care across multiple sessions, with every new interaction informed by the complete historical context. This capability facilitates long-term monitoring of a student's psychological trajectory, enables ongoing evaluation of intervention efficacy, and permits data-driven adjustments to support plans. It thereby transforms psychological support from a series of isolated events into a coherent, evolving, and adaptive therapeutic process. In summary, the multi-agent collaborative framework and its dual-cycle operational model proposed in this study represent a significant advancement. By organically integrating deep domain knowledge, a real-time supervision mechanism, and a mechanism for continuous adaptive learning, it provides a comprehensive, forward-looking, and operationally viable technical blueprint for utilizing artificial intelligence to profoundly transform university mental health services. This solution holds promise for significantly enhancing the accessibility, personalization, and long-term intervention efficacy of psychological support. Furthermore, it lays a solid technical and practical foundation for developing the next generation of intelligent, prevention-oriented mental health platforms dedicated to fostering student well-being. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The moral impact of delegating to artificial intelligence TANG Wei, ZHONG Wenrui, LEI Zhen, ZHANG Dandan 2026, 34 (6):  1084-1096.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.1084 Abstract ( 169 )   PDF (653KB) ( 148 )   Peer Review Comments Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly deployed as an agent that executes decisions on behalf of human decision-makers. When decision authority is separated from execution authority, both moral psychology and social accountability can shift, making unethical decisions easier to initiate and harder to sanction. Despite rapid growth in this literature, two gaps remain. First, although delegation to agents (e.g., human subordinates or rule-based algorithms) is known to affect moral decision-making, it is unclear how these mechanisms change when the agent is an AI system. Second, research lacks a systematic, delegation-based account of how AI agents shape unethical behavior. Much work concentrates on the moral properties of AI itself (e.g., ethical compliance or capacities), while paying less attention to how AI, as an executing agent, alters human moral choices. Related studies also tend to examine isolated vantage points—such as decision-makers’ perceptions of consequences or affected parties’ moral evaluations—without integrating decision-makers, agents, and evaluators into a single framework. To address these gaps, this article develops a “decision-maker-agent-evaluator” framework for moral decision-making and accountability grounded in delegation theory, and uses it to synthesize and reorganize roughly two decades of empirical and theoretical research. Moral outcomes are treated as jointly produced by three roles: (i) the decision-maker, who issues a directive with ethical consequences and anticipates outcomes; (ii) the agent, who implements the directive (human, rule-based algorithmic, or AI); and (iii) the evaluator—affected parties and third-party observers—who evaluates the act, infers intent, assigns responsibility, and may sanction. Within this framework, the article identifies two pathways through which agents can promote unethical behavior. The first is a decision-chain pathway originating from the decision-maker. Delegation increases temporal, spatial, hierarchical, and procedural distance between decision-makers and those affected, making consequences less salient and facilitating moral disengagement. Delegation also expands decision-makers’ room for moral ambivalence, making it easier to justify unethical behavior. Finally, delegation can allow decision-makers to pursue benefits while preserving their moral self-image. The second is a feedback-chain pathway originating from evaluators. When actions are carried out through an agent, evaluators may struggle to pinpoint the actual decision-maker and infer intent. At the same time, the agent becomes an additional target for attribution, shifting and dispersing blame and responsibility. This weakens anticipated blame and punishment along the feedback chain, indirectly increasing the likelihood of unethical behavior. A further contribution of this article is to specify AI-specific effects and show how they operate along both pathways. On the decision-chain pathway, AI’s high compliance raises execution reliability and can reduce perceived exposure risk. Its learning capability and black-box opacity reduce traceability and blur the input-output reasoning chain, making intent and responsibility easier to deny by invoking unforeseeability or lack of control. In addition, low-cost replication and cross-context personalization allow AI agents to diffuse and amplify what would otherwise be localized unethical practices, increasing frequency, reach, and the difficulty of timely detection—thus expanding potential returns. On the feedback-chain pathway, the relative novelty of AI agents can foster greater tolerance, and AI mediation can further cloud judgments of decision-maker intention, increasing both the incidence and intensity of unethical behavior. The article concludes with three directions for future research and governance: (1) test the sequencing, interaction, and relative importance of mechanisms within the framework and identify boundary conditions under which AI-enabled delegation may yield moral enhancement rather than erosion; (2) examine diffusion dynamics beyond the framework—imitation, social transmission, and organizational amplification—through which AI-mediated unethical practices spread and become normalized; and (3) develop and evaluate human-AI collaborative governance strategies, specifying where interventions should enter (decision, delegation, or feedback), in what order, and how responsibilities should be allocated between human oversight and AI-based controls. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Empathy in Chinese culture: The role of differential mode of association ZHU Xu, YANG Xue 2026, 34 (6):  1097-1108.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2026.1097 Abstract ( 172 )   PDF (567KB) ( 207 )   Peer Review Comments Empathy, the capacity to share and understand the emotions and thoughts of others, is profoundly shaped by cultural context. However, prevailing cross-cultural research has largely been confined to dichotomous comparisons between individualism and collectivism, leaving systematic investigations into the mechanisms within specific cultural contexts underexplored. Although the collectivism framework emphasizes interdependence and attachment to groups, it fails to fully capture the complexity and practical logic of social relations in Chinese society. In contrast, Fei Xiaotong's indigenous sociological construct, termed the “differential mode of association” (chaxu geju), offers a more precise lens for understanding the structure of social networks and the ethical norms governing interpersonal interactions in China. This study adopts this framework to examine empathy in the Chinese cultural context. The differential mode of association is a multidimensional framework that encompasses both “intimacy-distance” (qin-shu) and “hierarchy-status” (zun-bei). From this perspective, the Western concept of empathy encounters dual challenges in the Chinese context. On the dimension of intimacy-distance, the tendency toward self-other fusion in Chinese social relations conflicts with the clear self-other boundary typically presupposed by Western models of empathy. This characteristic may lead individuals to become overly absorbed in empathic engagement, thereby experiencing heightened personal distress. Such intensified personal distress may, in turn, motivate individuals to avoid direct emotional empathy toward others, as empathic engagement risks further amplifying their own psychological burden. On the dimension of hierarchy-status, the Confucian emphasis on status order and role-based moral obligations constrains the development of egalitarian empathy, as empathizing beyond one’s prescribed role identity may be perceived as inappropriate or even offensive. These tensions underscore fundamental differences in how empathy is conceptualized and practiced across cultures. Confucian ethics takes ren (benevolence or humaneness) as its internal emotional foundation and li (ritual propriety) as its external normative framework. The interaction between this affective foundation and normative framework gives rise to a distinctive mode of empathy in Chinese culture. This study identifies three key characteristics of this mode. First, emotional expression tends to be implicit and indirect. Individuals are inclined to restrain emotional disclosure in interactions with strangers. Even in close relationships, intense personal distress may lead individuals to avoid precise recognition and direct emotional attunement to others’ affective states, instead conveying understanding and support through rationalization or instrumental, action-based forms of assistance. Second, empathy is characterized by holistic and rationalized cognition. Given the persistent emphasis on relationships and situational context, empathy is not limited to sharing the emotional or bodily experiences of the empathic target. Rather, it often proceeds from an appraisal of the overall relational and situational context and is guided by dialectical and compromise-oriented modes of thinking. Third, empathy is oriented toward problem-solving and action. Due to the relatively blurred self-other boundaries embedded in the differential mode of association, individuals often assume greater responsibility for others’ circumstances. This sense of responsibility is commonly expressed through efforts to resolve problems or to provide concrete support to those in distress. Empathy and understanding are therefore not confined to emotional resonance or verbal expression but are expected to be realized through corresponding behavioral practices, reflecting the cultural ethos that “action speaks louder than words.” In conclusion, although the core mechanisms of empathy may be universal, its interpersonal expression is deeply shaped by cultural contexts. Empathy should be understood as a situated practice shaped by specific social relations and ethical orders, rather than as a purely intrapsychic capacity. This calls for a more inclusive, culturally sensitive theoretical framework in empathy research. We advocate for further indigenous psychological studies to enrich the global understanding of empathy with perspectives grounded in Chinese culture and to facilitate more culturally attuned applications in clinical and interpersonal settings. References | Related Articles | Metrics