Abstract: Against the background of mindfulness transitioning from the Buddhist tradition to the field of psychology, this paper explores its ethical dimensions, aiming to resolve the ambiguities of its ethical connotations and mechanisms of action in order to provide theoretical advances and innovative insights.
The study critically examines the evolution of mindfulness, transitioning from ethically neutral first-generation mindfulness to ethically informed second-generation mindfulness, and culminating in a novel, wisdom-oriented mindfulness. The findings indicate an inadequate understanding about the ethical implications of mindfulness across these generations.
To address this shortfall, the paper proposes an innovative classification of Buddhist ethics from the perspective of Buddhism’s Two Truths (Conventional Truth and Ultimate Truth). It identifies a dual dimension of Buddhist ethics, comprising normative morality based on rule-following and transcendental morality based on the enhancement of mental faculties, with a particular emphasis on transcendental morality. Normative morality is represented by the precepts, which delineate between good and evil through rules, emphasizing external moral norms along with their restraining effect on the individual and society. By contrast, transcendental morality is embodied by “loving-kindness”, which results from transcending conventional notions of good and evil. This is achieved through the “refutation of grāha”, leading to a higher cognitive model known in Buddhism as “non-self”, which is characterized by “inwardness”, “non-distinction”, and “endogenous morality”. It enables individuals to gain insight into the nature of reality, fundamentally transforming their ways of perception and interaction with the world, marking a significant breakthrough in the functioning of the mind and the form of wisdom.
Hence, “wisdom”, or the formation of the advanced cognitive model, is the foundation for the development of transcendental morality. Notably, the concept of wisdom in this paper is fundamentally different from the wisdom described in the novel, wisdom-oriented mindfulness, where the latter views wisdom merely as a result of decentering. Instead, drawing on traditional Buddhist theories of mind, this paper emphasizes that wisdom’s essence lies in cognitive enhancement. This perspective seeks to deepen and expand the role of wisdom in mindfulness practice.
To cultivate a wisdom-based transcendent morality in mindfulness training, the paper introduces a “mindfulness training returning to Buddhist ethics” model. This model outlines three stages: the initial phase focuses on attentional training and psychological relief, the intermediate phase integrates normative moral principles to improve virtues, and the advanced phase centers on wisdom-oriented morality in response to more complex ethical dilemmas.
In addition, to address concerns about the potential religionization of mindfulness due to the integration of Buddhist ethics, this paper explores the boundaries of its implementation. In fact, Buddhism, at its core, is not an institutionalized religion but a traditional cultural system centered on mind cultivation, which is a classical theory and technique of psychological adaptation. Therefore, the integration of Buddhist ethics into mindfulness training is not religious indoctrination, let alone a return to the original religious form, but rather a refinement and transformation of psychological theories and techniques to the greatest extent possible.
Finally, given the tendency of Western scholars to return to the traditional ethics of Buddhism, this paper advocates that scholars need to enhance their academic sensitivity and cultural pioneering awareness and try to put forward a relatively complete ethical model of mindfulness based on their own indigenous cultural strengths, so as to provide Chinese scholars with a new perspective for enriching the theoretical framework of mindfulness.
In conclusion, mindfulness is a tool for improving mental health and encompasses the connotation of ethics, morality, and even wisdom. In contemporary society, which is in dire need of spiritual upliftment, it is particularly important to highlight the wisdom’s connotation in the ethical dimension of mindfulness.

Key words: mindfulness, Buddhist ethics, mental function, wisdom