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“Rat Race” or “Lying Flat”? The effect of competition stress on psychological compensation WANG Wangshuai, YI Yanxi, LUO Zhiwei, LI Jie Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (7): 1057-1072.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.01057 Abstract （3493）   HTML （266）    PDF （710KB）（6936）       Knowledge map    In the modern society with rapidly accelerating pace, competition has become ubiquitous and intense. No doubt that competition can lead to aversive psychological stress. Interestingly, in response to the competition stress, individuals choose two contradictory compensation strategies, as some go “Rat Race”, while others do “Lying Flat”. Why do individuals make contrasting choices? Does it result from different types of stress? What are the psychological mechanisms and boundary conditions of the “Rat Race” and “Lying Flat” effects, respectively? In the current literature, none of these questions has been answered. Therefore, the core concepts of this research are competition stress and psychological compensation; the central story is to reveal the relationship between different types of competition stress and psychological compensation. More specifically, this research distinguishes the multi-dimensional attributes of competition stress. Based on the theory of psychological compensation, we then explore individuals’ compensation strategies when faced with different types of competition stress. The paper is structured into three main sections: (1) competition stress is a multi-dimensional concept, encompassing both competition result stress and competition process stress; (2) competition result stress leads to the fluid compensation strategy, which is termed as the “Rat Race” effect. The psychological mechanism of this effect is self-esteem threat, and the boundary condition is self-affirmation; (3) competition process stress drives the escapism compensation strategy, which is termed as the “Lying Flat” effect. The psychological mechanism of this effect is well-being threat, and the boundary condition is social support. This study marks the first attempt to identify different types of competition stress and examines how they respectively affect individuals’ compensation strategies. The present paper significantly contributes to the existing literature on competition stress, psychological compensation, self-esteem, and well-being. Moreover, research findings can guide companies’ marketing activities, promote individual well-being, and assist public policy making. The research questions of this paper are rooted in practicality and real-world, and answering these questions in turn contributes to the extant literature in at least two ways. First, while existing research on competition stress has shed light on how it alters an individual’s physical and mental states, it portrayed competition stress as a unidimensional construct, overlooking its potential multidimensional nature. Moreover, prior studies have failed to explore individuals’ compensatory strategies under competition stress. Consequently, this research reveals the multidimensional attribute of competition stress, delineating it into competition result stress and competition process stress. Subsequently, how different types of competition stress lead to contrasting compensatory strategies are analyzed, including the “Rat Race” effect engendered by competition result stress and the “Lying Flat” effect prompted by competition process stress. Second, this paper contributes to the literature on self-esteem and well-being. Specifically, regarding self-esteem, while previous research has primarily examined its direct influence on individuals, this study uncovers that self-esteem serves as the underlying psychological mechanism driving the “Rat Race” effect. In terms of well-being, despite being frequently investigated in extant research, yet it received less attention in explaining psychological compensation. Therefore, findings from the present research enrich the literature on well-being, expanding our understanding of its connections with competition stress and compensatory behaviors. Aside from the theoretical contributions, the current research also provides practical implications in three ways. For enterprises, the psychological compensation behavior impelled by competition stress is shown to follow a traceable pattern, which can be leveraged for increasing market share and sales profits. For instance, product slogans aimed at individuals opting for “Rat Race” can aim to evoke their competitive mindset, while brands tailored to those embracing “Lying Flat” should emphasize concepts like escaping the “noise” and maintaining the inner peace. As for individuals, it is suggested that when faced with severe competition stress, individuals can restore psychological resources through recalling past successful experiences or seeking for the support from families and friends. Furthermore, for policymakers, given that over-competition may lead to negative outcomes, this research reminds policymakers to maintain a moderate competition level in the society and to make necessary interventions when necessary. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Conceptualization of time poverty and its impact on well-being: From the perspective of scarcity theory SUN Xiaomin, YANG Shuting, KONG Xiaoshan, LIU Zhenzhen, MA Rongzi, YUAN Yue, ZHANG Nan, JIANG Xinying, CAO Peiling, BAO Ruiji, LIN Yiqin, LI Ning, LI Zhihang Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (1): 27-38.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.00027 Abstract （4364）   HTML （268）    PDF （716KB）（6019）       Knowledge map    In today’s fast-paced world, increasing numbers of individuals are facing time poverty, i.e., having too much to do and not enough time. It can impact people's cognitive processes and behaviors by affecting their attention. However, the extant literature provides only a limited understanding of the influence of time poverty and its effects on individual multi-faceted well-being. Therefore, a comprehensive investigation of the concept of time poverty and its impact on well-being is of great importance theoretically and practically. The current study intends to present a three-dimensional theoretical model for the construct of time poverty from an integrated perspective, aiming to explore its effects on multi-faceted subjective well-being and investigate the potential mechanisms by which time poverty reduces well-being based on scarcity theory. Specifically, the current study proposes a three-dimensional structure for the concept of time poverty, which includes length, intensity, and quality. Most researchers agree that spending an excessive amount of time on paid work or unpaid domestic work and having an insufficient amount of free time leads to time poverty. Moreover, the number of tasks to be completed per unit of time may be an independent source of pressure resulting in the perception of time poverty. The stressful pace caused by over-rapid task completion and too short intervals could increase the sense of time poverty. Lastly, the quality dimension of time poverty comprises time integrity, time autonomy, and time synchronization. Low time quality could worsen the perception of time poverty. Based on the three-dimensional model of time poverty, the current study aims to develop a time poverty scale and construct a large-scale Chinese time poverty database. This database is designed to collect demographic information as well as the level of time poverty of representative samples, aiming to explore the dominant type of time poverty for different demographic groups and trace the dynamic changes in time poverty over time. Furthermore, the current study proposes that time poverty can have a significant impact on people’s well-being. Time poverty can develop a scarcity mindset, leading people to focus on the scarcity of time. Consequently, they overemphasize productivity, resulting in a strong inclination of completing more tasks in a shorter amount of time. Such a mindset shifts people’s attention from the activity’s process to its results, reducing intrinsic motivation and, as a result, ruining people’s well-being. An excessive focus on productivity can also harm interpersonal and family well-being by underestimating the importance of investing time and energy in nurturing relationships, thereby lowering the quality of relationship-oriented interactions. Therefore, we argue that by promoting the over-productivity orientation, time poverty can adversely affect individual, interpersonal, and family well-being. Furthermore, time poverty in one spouse's workplace produces an over-productivity tendency which then spills over to the family environment and is conveyed to the other spouse in their daily interactions. Such processes are likely to negatively influence both parties’ well-being. Overall, the current project develops a three-dimensional time poverty theoretical model, based on which a time poverty scale will be developed. With the new scale, a large-scale database will be constructed. The project will explore the experiences of different groups of people with distinct characteristics in Chinese society, and how such experiences influence personal, interpersonal, and family well-being. The results of the current project are of great importance for not only the successful coping of time poverty for individuals but also for societies aiming to improve the well-being of their people. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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When AI learns to empathize: Topics, scenarios, and optimization of empathy computing from a psychological perspective HOU Hanchao, NI Shiguang, LIN Shuya, WANG Pusheng Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (5): 845-858.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.00845 Abstract （2660）   HTML （137）    PDF （729KB）（5984）       Knowledge map    Empathy computing is an emerging research field that integrates artificial intelligence (AI) and big data technology to predict, identify, simulate, and generate human empathy. This field builds upon psychological studies in terms of concepts, measurements, neural foundations, and applications of empathy, and employs innovative computing approaches for analyzing and simulating empathy. This article critically reviews current research on empathy computing and discusses its future directions from a psychological perspective, with the aim of facilitating foundational research and practical applications in this field. The current research on empathy computing can be categorized into four themes based on different purposes and methods. On one hand, empathy computing primarily aims to analyze and comprehend empathy using computers. This endeavor can be further divided into two categories: (1) individual empathy assessment, which focuses on analyzing individual empathetic traits, and (2) empathetic content classification, which focuses on analyzing empathetic features in texts rather than individuals. On the other hand, research also focuses on simulating and expressing empathy through computing, which includes (3) the design of empathetic response systems and (4) the development of generative empathetic dialogue systems. The former provides users with a limited number of predefined rule-based responses and feedback to express empathy, while the latter utilizes AI to automatically generate a wide range of empathetic dialogues without relying on predefined rules. These four research streams are relatively independent yet complementary. Moreover, as research progresses, new directions will continue to emerge, such as improving the empathic capabilities of computers through brain-computer interface technology. Although research on empathy computing is still in its early stages, it has shown potential for innovative applications in scenarios such as mental health, education, business services, and public management. With the increasing prevalence of artificial intelligence, these fields, which involve substantial interpersonal interactions, are positioned to become the primary domains for human-computer interaction. As a result, they emerge as the key application scenarios for empathy computing. In the realm of mental health, empathy computing can assist in automatically evaluating and enhancing therapists' empathetic abilities. Additionally, it can provide personalized empathetic support and guidance through AI-driven chatbots. In the field of education, empathy computing can facilitate the learning process by employing empathetic AI tutors. Within the business sector, it enables organizations to deliver tailored customer experiences, thereby enhancing satisfaction and fostering loyalty through the generation of empathic dialogues. In public management, empathy computing can be used to generate empathetic discourse to counteract negative speech. Additionally, it facilitates policymakers to respond empathetically to citizens' needs and inquiries, thereby fostering trust between the government and the public. These four scenarios illustrate the vast potential applications of empathy computing. However, due to concerns related to safety and ethics, complete reliance on computers to perform empathetic tasks is currently not feasible. Instead, a collaboration between humans and computers is necessary. Empathy computing represents a transformative frontier, not only providing methods to measure and analyze empathy automatically on a larger scale but also enriching the theoretical landscape of empathy research. It extends traditional studies on empathy in interpersonal relationships to explore its emerging manifestations in human-AI relationships. This expansion raises novel questions about the universality of empathy and its potential evolution in human-computer interaction. Empathy computing holds the promise of serving as a cornerstone for a unified theory of empathy that encompasses diverse relationship dynamics, ranging from human-human to human-machine interactions and beyond. It is beneficial for comprehensively understanding empathy and effectively promoting it in the context of an intelligent society. Future research should focus on developing integrated theoretical models of empathy computing, establishing reliable psychological and behavioral datasets of empathy-related characteristics, and validating and refining empathy computing research through a human-centered approach. Psychologists play indispensable roles in leading, evaluating, and optimizing research and practice in this field. The collaboration of scholars in psychology and computer science is imperative to ensure that AI learns empathy effectively and ethically, thereby fostering people’s wellbeing in the forthcoming intelligent society. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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A meta-analysis of the relationship between achievement goal orientation and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and student engagement WU Jiahui, FU Hailun Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (7): 1104-1125.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.01104 Abstract （1668）   HTML （105）    PDF （963KB）（5178）       Knowledge map    Achievement goal orientation is an important source of motivation for individuals, and it affects academic performance by influencing cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes related to academics. Examining the relationship between achievement goal orientation and academic performance can reveal the intrinsic reasons for differentiation in students’ grades, thereby deepening the understanding of the inherent mechanisms of students’ learning processes at a micro level. Consequently, there is growing interest in the relationship between achievement goal orientation and academic performance. With continuing advances in developmental psychology, current research is increasingly focusing on the mediating mechanisms between achievement goal orientation and academic performance. A review the literature reveals that current research mainly focuses on exploring the independent and chained effects of self-efficacy and student engagement on academic performance at the non-intellectual factor level. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their perceived ability to achieve predetermined goals, which is a key factor influencing students’ learning engagement and academic performance. Student engagement refers to the time and effort individuals invest in purposeful educational activities and is an important proximal factor in predicting students’ academic performance. However, there are no uniform findings on the strength of the correlation between achievement goal orientation and academic performance. There is also no clear conclusion on which moderating factors influence both, as well as the extent to which mediating factors affect them. Furthermore, current meta-analyses have a relatively scattered explanatory perspective on achievement goal orientation; so far, only the relationship between the sub-dimensions of achievement goal orientation and academic performance has been explored. In addition, some studies have placed achievement goal orientation within the intermediate structure of motivation and behavior, focusing on the association between achievement goal orientation and its antecedents and consequences. Moreover, current meta-analyses have not fully explored the potential moderating factors in the relationship between the four-factor structure of achievement goal orientation and academic performance. Due to the limited number of studies on the relationship between mastery-avoidance goals and academic performance, previous research has mostly focused on overall tracking by incorporating mastery-avoidance goals into mastery goals. Finally, current meta-analyses have not yet thoroughly investigate the mediating of non-intellectual factors between achievement goal orientation and academic performance, with most studies focusing on integrating effect sizes and exploring possible moderating variables, using samples that do not involve mediating variables. Specifically, the meta-analysis of the four-factor structural model of achievement goal orientation, dating back approximately ten years, may suffer from time lag bias. Therefore, the present study, based on achievement goal orientation theory, expectancy-value theory, and self-efficacy theory, conducted a meta-analysis to explore the consistencies and differences in existing international studies. It provides a comprehensive report on the relevance of the relationship between achievement goal orientation and academic performance, with a particular focus on exploring the mediating effects of self-efficacy and student engagement as well as a range of moderating effects. A total of 67 empirical research and 206 effect sizes were included through literature retrieval. Results of our analysis were as follows: (1) Mastery-approach and performance-approach goals were significantly and positively correlated with academic achievement, while mastery-avoidance and performance-avoidance goals were significantly and negatively correlated with academic achievement; each indicator was robustly and weakly dependent on academic achievement. (2) The relationship between achievement goal orientation and academic achievement was influenced by age stage and measurement tools, but not by gender ratio or achievement type. (3) Self-efficacy and student engagement played significant mediating roles in the relationship between achievement goal orientation and academic performance; however, the mediating effect of student engagement was only significant for students in the middle school group and not the university school group. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of loneliness on consumption behavior and its theoretical explanations LI Ting, KONG Xiangbo, WANG Fenghua Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (6): 1078-1093.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01078 Abstract （3262）   HTML （361）    PDF （933KB）（5129）       Knowledge map    Loneliness has become an increasingly common social phenomenon that is widespread at all ages and has an impact on people's daily lives in modern societies. Loneliness is a painful emotional experience that individuals subjectively perceive when the quality of intimate or social relationships does not meet ideal expectations or when they cannot satisfy their need to belong. Recent research findings regarding the impact of loneliness on consumption behavior have contributed greatly to the field of consumer behavior. However, the results of existing research are inconsistent and it is still unclear how loneliness affects consumption behavior. As a consequence, the field of consumer behavior is rather constrained in terms of research development and marketing strategy. In light of the importance of loneliness in the field of consumer behavior, this article systematically reviews the research findings of the influence of loneliness on consumption behavior in order to solve the above problems. First of all, this article summarizes and generalizes the widely used manipulation methods (including the feedback-evoked method, recall-evoked method, imagination-evoked method, and cue-evoked method) and measurement tools (i.e., the UCLA loneliness scale) for loneliness. Secondly, this article summarizes the effects of loneliness on consumption behavior from four aspects, including compensatory consumption behavior, avoidance consumption behavior, irrational consumption behavior, and uniqueness consumption behavior, respectively. Thirdly, this article analyzes and sorts out the triggering mechanisms and situational factors of loneliness-induced consumption behaviors, respectively. According to the Evolutionary Theory of Loneliness, this article contends that, the psychological needs (e.g., seeking social connection, restoring a sense of control, and seeking a sense of meaning in life) activated by transiently lonely consumers, who are influenced by the approach motive for restoring self-difference, will induce compensatory consumption behaviors. The social avoidance tendency activated by chronically lonely consumers, who are influenced by the avoidance motive for self-preservation in the short term, will induce avoidance consumption behaviors. At the same time, constant vigilance for social threats and the negative emotions it produces (e.g., anxiety) due to social avoidance may deplete lonely consumers’ self-regulatory resources, which will induce irrational consumption behaviors. The need for uniqueness activated by chronically lonely consumers, who are influenced by the avoidance motive for self-preservation in the long term, will induce uniqueness consumption behavior. In addition, loneliness motivates consumers to induce these above consumption behaviors will be influenced by factors such as consumers' intimacy status, marketing strategies, product attributes, and consumption contexts. Finally, the article explains the influence mechanisms of loneliness on various types of consumption behaviors based on different perspectives such as social surrogacy theory, sense of control theory, compensatory consumption behavior theory, self-regulation theory, and personality trait theory. Although many valuable results have been obtained from existing research on the effects of loneliness on consumer behavior, there are still some key issues that need to be addressed by future research. This article proposes that future research shall pay more attention to the impact of loneliness on altruistic consumption behavior (e.g., examining the effects of loneliness on pro-social consumption behavior or sustainable consumption behavior), the differential effects of type and degree of loneliness on consumption behavior (e.g., examining the differential effects of transient and chronic loneliness on consumption behavior), the potential moderators of loneliness-induced consumption behavior (e.g., exploring the boundary variables of loneliness-induced consumption behavior in terms of consumers' physiological activities, personality traits, and social characteristics), the internal mechanisms of loneliness-induced consumption behavior (e.g., attempting to explore the internal mechanisms of loneliness-induced consumption behavior from the cognitive-emotional dual processing path), as well as the reverse impact of consumption behavior on loneliness (e.g., clarifying the differential effects of consumption behavior on individual loneliness in the short and long term). Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The occurrence mechanism of short video indulgence from the perspective of human-computer interaction DONG Wanghao, WANG Weijun, WANG Xingchao, LI Wenqing Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (12): 2337-2349.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.02337 Abstract （3078）   HTML （193）    PDF （721KB）（4967）       Knowledge map    Short video indulgence refers to an individual’s compulsive and uncontrollable consumption of short videos, leading to significant behavioral or attention impairments, and subsequently causing difficulties in interpersonal relationships, learning, and/or work adaptation. With the continuous expansion of the short video user base and the trend towards younger groups, threats of short video indulgence to users’ physical and mental health have aroused extensive attention. From a human-computer interaction perspective, we synthesized and delineated the relevant factors contributing to the occurrence of short video indulgence. The objective is to formulate a comprehensive framework delineating the intricate mechanism that underpins the phenomenon of short video indulgence, thereby shedding light on the intricacies involved in its developmental process. At first, in order to explore the delineation between short video usage and indulgence, we categorized short video usage into “instrumental” and “ritualistic” forms. Instrumental usage refers to user behavior driven by specific goals or needs, where short videos serve as tools or means to achieve particular objectives. Ritualistic usage refers to user behavior without a specific objective, where short videos become habitual behaviors associated with particular contexts, times, or situations. The transition from conventional utilization of short videos to the state of short video indulgence appears to encompass a notable shift in usage behavior, evolving from a utilitarian “instrumental” function to a more “ritualistic” engagement. After that, the present work formulates a conceptual framework delineating the mechanisms underlying the onset of short video indulgence, delving into the domains of human-computer interaction and susceptibility traits. The first section encompasses four facets: information technology, content provision, human-computer interaction, and user experience. Their salient characteristics encompass technological advancement, content richness, interactive efficiency, and user immersion. Furthermore, propelled by recommendation algorithms, users’ engagement with short videos becomes increasingly fortified. The second section systematically expounds the susceptibility factors contributing to short video indulgence. The four categories of unique susceptibility traits align with the four stages of interactive mechanisms, while the categories represented by common susceptibility traits have an inducing effect on general addictive behaviors. Considering the analogous nature of short video indulgence to general online indulgence, the unique and common susceptibility traits exhibit mutual intersection and overlap. Overall, the role of interactive mechanisms lies in arousing susceptibility traits, rendering individuals more susceptible to allure and ensnarement in a cycle of addictive behaviors. Simultaneously, susceptibility traits amplify users’ responsiveness and vulnerability to inducing factors. The multifaceted components within the realm of human-computer interaction, propelled by recommendation algorithms, intricately intertwine with users’ susceptibility traits, driving the transformation of users’ engagement with short videos from an “instrumental” to a “ritualistic” approach, ultimately leading to the emergence of short video indulgence. This framework seeks to illuminate the genesis and progression of short video indulgence, offering researchers in this domain a comprehensive conceptual structure to foster the scientific governance of short video indulgence. Subsequently, in order to achieve a deeper understanding of the mechanism behind short video indulgence, we offered theoretical interpretations of short video indulgence from cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social perspectives. The dual process theory, opponent process theory, uses and gratifications theory and social shaping of technology theory were employed to elucidate the process of short video indulgence formation. Finally, this study concludes by summarizing the existing shortcomings in the current field of research. The points are concluded as follows: 1) The research methods are limited, there should be a diversification of research perspectives; 2) Insufficient attention to technology emphasizes the need to emphasize improvements in technology that contribute to addiction; 3) The mechanism of formation is unclear, there should be a deepening of the research into the mechanisms of occurrence; 4) Inadequate research on user characteristics highlights the need to focus on susceptibility factor studies. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Dancing with AI: AI-employee collaboration in the systemic view YIN Meng, NIU Xiongying Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (1): 162-176.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.00162 Abstract （2268）   HTML （153）    PDF （679KB）（4899）       Knowledge map    AI-employee collaboration is an interactive system composed of “AI-human-organization” with the goal of completing tasks efficiently. Promoting AI-employee collaboration is crucial for driving the deep integration of AI and the real economy, as well as the mental health and career development of employees in the digital era. However, the conceptual connotation of AI and AI-employee collaboration has not yet been systematically elaborated in the literature, which has led to ambiguity in the meaning of AI in organizations as well as confusion between concepts of different AI application. In addition, the research of AI-employee collaboration is fragmented and complex across disciplines, and the academic community lacks a comprehensive understanding of the current status and future direction of AI-employee collaboration research. Based on the above limitations, we conducted a comprehensive search of the literature related to AI-employee collaboration, coded the publication information, theoretical basis, core research conclusions and other contents of the literature, and organized the content of the paper based on a systemic review after reading the literature in depth. We first clarify the concept and dimensions of AI in the workplace, and then discuss the systemic view of AI-employee collaboration, and further clarify the conceptual connotation of AI-employee collaboration from the systemic view. This helps to unify the academic dialogue and lay the foundation for subsequent research on AI-employee collaboration. Then, based on the systemic view of AI-employee collaboration, the paper constructs a research framework of AI-employee collaboration using I-P-O paradigm, and describes AI-employee collaboration as input, process and output of a system in detail. At the input of the system, AI, employees, and organizations work together to drive the design, implementation, and use of AI. At the AI level, we review from three dimensions: physical attributes, mental attributes and ethical attributes. At the employee level, we review from four aspects: attitude, KSAs, personalities and demographic characteristics. At the organizational level, we review from three perspectives: organizational readiness, organizational support, organizational climate and culture. In the process of the system, actors operate around work tasks, and they influence the output by performing the tasks. Therefore, the process is a task configuration, including two aspects: task goal and interaction approaches. We further propose that optimizing AI-employee collaboration requires attention to the dynamic matching of interaction approaches and task goal. At the output of the system, we summarize the outcomes of three actors: employees, AI and organization. The research framework explicitly describes the components and internal mechanisms of AI-employee collaboration system, and provides a basic theoretical framework guide for further more in-depth research. Finally, based on the limitations of the research framework, we propose future research prospects from five perspectives. (1) Future research should emphasize the ethical issues in AI-employee collaboration system, providing more empirical and experimental evidence for the impact of ethical attributes on AI-employee collaboration. (2) Future research should develop objective measurements of the organizational consequences of AI-employee collaboration. (3) Future research should explore more individual factors that may influence AI-employee collaboration, such as prompt ability, cultural values, etc. (4) Future research should further elaborate the task configuration of AI-employee collaboration and examine the efficiency and effectiveness of AI-employee collaboration with different task configurations. (5) Future research should expand the research framework based on the new developments of I-P-O paradigm, such as feedback loops. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Have gender stereotypes changed or not changed? Evidence from contents, methods, and consequences WANG Zhen, GUAN Jian Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (6): 939-950.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.00939 Abstract （2217）   HTML （100）    PDF （559KB）（4805）       Knowledge map    Stereotypes have been defined as beliefs about the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of people classified into social categories. Stereotypes are traditionally perceived as resistant to change. However, they may be changed under contexts of the impacts of societal changes on human culture and psychology. Given that gender stereotypes are expected to be more unshakable than other stereotypes (e.g., race stereotypes), it implies that there is a potential for changing other stereotypes, provided that gender stereotypes can be changed. Therefore, this article reviewed changes in gender stereotypes from their contents, methods, and consequences. According to the social role theory, gender stereotypes are built on social roles. Therefore, gender stereotypes are expected to change with the changes in the roles of men and women. Considerable studies have found that gender stereotypes have changed. Specifically, some studies have shown that women are perceived to increase their masculine characteristics (e.g., agency) over time, while men are not perceived to increase feminine characteristics (e.g., communion). Differently, others have indicated that both women and men are perceived to increase in counterstereotypical traits over time. However, in contrast to these findings depicting changes in gender stereotypes, several studies did not find significant changes, and they believed that gender stereotypes persist over time. One of the possible reasons for these conflicting findings is that different methods have been used in previous studies. The research methods of gender stereotype changes can be divided into traditional methods and new techniques. The traditional methods usually involve the past-present-future rating paradigm, cross-sequential design, and cross-temporal meta-analysis. Word embedding, as a new technique, has become increasingly important in recent years. All research methods have their relative advantages and disadvantages. The consequences of gender stereotype changes can be categorized into positive and negative outcomes. In terms of positive outcomes, gender stereotype changes increase the possibility of men being involved in more household labor, which may result in better relationship quality for the couple. Besides, the new male role in parental care for children generates many benefits, such as better academic performance, higher levels of self-esteem, and fewer behavioral problems in children. Additionally, gender stereotype changes can promote women’s economic independence and reduce the gender gap. However, there are also negative outcomes with the changes in gender stereotypes. Specifically, these changes intensify low fertility rates and birth rates. Notably, even if gender stereotypes towards targets become more and more positive over time, targets may not treat the stereotypes as compliments. On the contrary, they may perceive the stereotypes as a form of gender prejudice, eventually impairing interpersonal and intergroup relationships. Further research on gender stereotype changes can be discussed from the following aspects: first, it is important for researchers to conduct studies with diverse research methods in the future. Second, future research should pay attention to not treating gender stereotypes as a single construct. Instead, they should be investigated through the perspective of classification (e.g., descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotypes). Third, given that stereotypical gender characteristics seem to interact with each other to build gender stereotypes, future research should examine gender stereotype changes by treating gender stereotypes as a complex system from a network approach. Last, we should not ignore cultural impacts on gender stereotype changes. Given that China has undergone more unprecedented societal transformations than Western countries over the past decades, the social roles in China have undergone tremendous changes. Therefore, it is indispensable to investigate gender stereotype changes in China. Furthermore, not only the gender stereotype changes, future studies need to explore changes in stereotypes about other categories, such as race, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, classes, and religion. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Does classical music make you smarter? A meta-analysis based on generalized Mozart effect CHEN Lijun, HUANG Meilin, JIANG Xiaoliu, WANG Xinjian Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (12): 2232-2262.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.02232 Abstract （4065）   HTML （212）    PDF （1262KB）（4785）       Knowledge map    Since the last century, scholars have increasingly focused on examining how Mozart’s music affects people’s cognitive performance, leading to rapid growth in the empirical literature on the Mozart effect. However, the effect size reported in empirical studies has been inconsistent. To address this, we conducted a meta-analysis based on a systematic and comprehensive review of studies on the impact of classical music, seeking to determine its influence on cognitive performance and the underlying mechanisms at work. We also investigated whether the characteristics of research participants (e.g., age group, gender, cultural context) and elements of experimental design (e.g., type of experimental design, types of control music, the order of music, cognitive task and cerebral hemisphere) moderate the magnitude of the Mozart effect. We identified studies by searching Web of Science, PubMed, ProQuest, WanFang, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure from 1993 to 2022 using the following terms: (“Mozart effect” OR “Mozart music” OR “music effect” OR “classical music”) AND (cognit* OR intellig* OR spati*). Our selection criteria were as follows: (1) the study reported original empirical findings; (2) at least two out of three possible treatments (listening to Mozart's Sonata KV 448, other classical music, or silence/other sounds) were administered to the groups; (3) the study involved the generalized Mozart effect and cognitive performance; (4) participants were the general public, excluding clinical or animal samples; (5) the study was written in either Chinese or English (the languages spoken by the authors). Ninety-one studies (with a total of 172 independent effect sizes and 7,159 participants) were included in the meta-analysis. Given that effect size could be influenced by participant characteristics (e.g., age, gender, cultural context), we applied a random-effects model. After coding the data, the “metafor” package (version 3.4.0) in R software was used to evaluate the total effect size of classical music and to analyze the publication bias test and moderating effects. The results showed that classical music improved cognitive task performance with a small effect (g = 0.36, 95% CI [0.24, 0.49]). The impact of publication bias was minimal, and the major findings remained valid. Additionally, the moderation analyses revealed that the strength of the relationship was moderated by age group, cultural context, type of experimental design, and dominant hemisphere of the brain. Specifically, the effect size of Chinese subjects was significantly larger than that of foreign subjects (g: 0.64 > 0.27, p = 0.018), and the effect size of preoperational stage children (3~6 years) was the largest (g= 1.10). Compared with the within-subject design, the between-subject effect was significantly greater (g: 0.48 > 0.22, p = 0.037). The right hemisphere also performed much better than the left (g: 0.44 > 0.08, p = 0.019). Moreover, gender interacted with age group, cultural context and cerebral hemisphere. The direct priming hypothesis received more robust support from this meta-analysis (g: 1.29 > 0.34, p = 0.045). To summarize, this study makes several important theoretical advances. First, this study systematically assessed the effects of listening to classical music on cognitive performance basing on a broad definition of Mozart effect, covering a wider range of musical genres and cognitive task types. It bridged the limitations of existing meta-analyses, clarified the debate on the reliability and scientific validity of the Mozart effect, and laid the groundwork for in-depth discussions. More importantly, this paper was the first to compare the effect sizes based on the "Direct Priming Hypothesis" and the "Arousal-mood Hypothesis", indicating the former to be more adept at explaining the Mozart effect. This provided a clearer theoretical guide for future researches. Finally, by examining the moderation effects of several factors, this paper explained why previous literature on the Mozart effect has reported inconsistent findings and provided more targeted design guidance for future studies. Beyond its theoretical advancements, the current paper’s results also have practical implications, such as the implications of age group differences and their interactions for children's cognitive development. The results can also aid in utilizing music education more effectively to boost cognitive performance. Future researches are encouraged to examine the long-term facilitative effect of classical music on cognitive performance, to explore the role of music preference in cognitive facilitation, and to explore more underlying moderators for the intervention effect size, such as subjects' personality traits, familiarity with music, and difficulty of the cognitive task. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The dynamic features of emotion dysregulation in major depressive disorder: An emotion dynamics perspective WU Chaoyi, WANG Zhen Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (2): 364-385.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.00364 Abstract （2075）   HTML （218）    PDF （783KB）（4623）       Knowledge map    The core feature of major depressive disorder, as defined in the DSM-5, is persistent mood disturbances characterized by excessive sadness and significantly reduced pleasant emotional experiences. Previous studies explored the emotion dysregulation of major depressive disorder by examining the static and trait-related aspects of overall emotional intensity, based on the trait model of personality. However, in real-life contexts, an individual's emotional experiences are not static but dynamically fluctuate in response to intricate social situations. Emotion is a dynamic process influenced by social interaction, individual evaluation processes and the external environment. Emotion dynamics consider the temporal dimension and volatility as the intrinsic features of emotions, to investigate how micro-level emotional fluctuation patterns impact psychological well-being at the macro-level. Researches on emotion dynamics have emphasized that the emotion dysregulation in major depressive disorder goes beyond increased negative emotional intensity and decreased positive emotional intensity. It also manifests as abnormal emotional dynamic patterns, specifically characterized by deviations in indicators of emotion dynamic such as emotion variability, instability, inertia, and others. Therefore, the objective of this systematic review is to summarize the dynamic features of emotion dysregulation in major depression from the perspective of emotion dynamics. This systematic review conducted a comprehensive search of the Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and PsycInfo databases from January 1, 2013 to January 1, 2023. A total of 18 studies were included in this review, which utilized ecological momentary assessment to explore the differences in indicators of emotion dynamics between clinical populations with depression and the control group. Consistent with findings from traditional cross-sectional retrospective studies and laboratory research, studies based on ecological momentary assessment indicated that patients with depression experience higher average intensity of negative emotions and lower average intensity of positive emotions in their daily lives. Significantly, this review offered a more nuanced understanding of emotion dysregulation in major depressive disorder beyond average emotional intensity. The key findings were as follows: (1) Patients with depression had greater negative emotion fluctuations compared with the healthy control group. These fluctuations manifested as greater negative emotion variability and instability. Compared to the healthy control group, individuals with depression exhibited a greater overall fluctuation in negative emotional experiences in their daily lives, with more pronounced fluctuations between two consecutive time points. (2) Depressed patients exhibited a rigid and inflexible emotional system, characterized by greater negative emotion inertia and denser emotion networks. Compared to the healthy control group, individuals with depression exhibited a greater tendency for negative emotions experienced in the past to persist into the next moment. Depressed patients had a greater number of connections and stronger linkages between nodes in their emotional networks. (3) Depressed patients exhibited abnormalities in emotional reactivity. This was reflected as the mood brightening effect after positive events and greater negative emotion reactivity after negative events. Compared to the healthy control group, individuals with depression exhibited greater emotional improvement following positive events and greater increase in negative emotions following negative events. (4) Patients with depression experienced decreased complexity in their emotional system. This manifested as a lower level of emotion differentiation. Compared to the control group, individuals with depression tended to perceive and report emotions in a relatively simplistic and generalized manner, lacking the ability to differentiate subtle distinctions between discrete emotions. Furthermore, patients with remitted depression also exhibited some degree of emotion dysregulation, providing empirical support for the complications or scar model and the set-point theory. This review was the first to comprehensively elucidate the primary features of emotion dysregulation in major depressive disorder viewed from emotion dynamics. The findings of this review provided further theoretical support for recent dynamic models of mental disorders, including complex dynamical system theory and network theory. Research in clinical psychology might benefit from accurately modeling the dynamic feature of psychopathology and approaching psychopathology as a system. As for clinical practice, the results contributed to the identification of potential intervention targets with high ecological validity for individualized treatment and relapse prevention of depression. In accordance with the principles of personalized medicine, psychiatrists could target specific features of a patient's emotion dysregulation as focal points for tailored and precise interventions, thereby enhancing the effective remission rates of depression. Furthermore, the insights from an emotion dynamics perspective inspired clinical practitioners to utilize more digitized and intelligent tools, such as smartphones and wearable devices, for advancing clinical assessments and treatments in the realm of mental disorders. This ongoing progress contributed to innovation and development in remote mental health services within the digital age. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of AI awareness on employee’s psychological and behavioral outcomes and its theoretical explanation WANG Tao, ZHAN Xiaojun, YU Wei Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (7): 1195-1208.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.01195 Abstract （2411）   HTML （145）    PDF （609KB）（4607）       Knowledge map    AI awareness refers to an employee's perception that the use of AI affects their work attitude, behavior, well-being, and work environment. The fourth Industrial Revolution has arrived, and while AI improves employee performance, it also brings risks and uncertainties that have a huge impact on employees. Although many studies have explored the impact of AI awareness on employees' psychological and behavioral outcomes, due to scholars' academic background, current studies are more focused on the field of relative segmentation. At the same time, because the concept of AI awareness is relatively new, its name is not unified, and the ambiguity of the concept limits the public's in-depth insight into AI awareness. In addition, the action path and boundary conditions of AI awareness on employees' psychological and behavioral outcomes have not yet been clarified, and the lack of AI awareness research framework has hindered the understanding of how AI application affects employees' psychological and behavioral outcomes. In order to explore the specific impact of AI application on employees and its function explanation mechanism, firstly, the research on AI awareness was systematically reviewed, the concept connotation of AI awareness was clarified, and AI awareness was re-defined as employees' perception of the impact of AI application on their work attitude, behavior, well-being and working environment. This definition highlights the two-sided nature of AI awareness, that is, AI awareness has both positive and negative effects on employees, rather than just negative effects. Second, it reveals the effects of AI awareness, advancing the understanding of how AI awareness affects employee psychology and behavior. The positive and negative effects of AI awareness on employees' psychological state are explained from the three aspects of emotion, stress and cognition, and the positive and negative effects of AI awareness on employees' behaviors are explained from the two aspects of active and negative behaviors, so that organizations and academia can more clearly, comprehensively and systematically recognize the important effects of AI application on employees' psychological and behavioral outcomes. Promote research in related fields. Thirdly, the theoretical explanation mechanism of AI awareness is explained based on resource perspective (conservation of resources theory, JD-R model), pressure perspective (cognitive evaluation theory), psychological needs perspective (self-determination theory), and environment perspective (person-environment fit theory). Finally, the paper elaborates on five aspects: exploring the multi-level driving mechanism of AI awareness, enriching the action mechanism of AI awareness, mining the spillover effect of AI awareness and strengthening the interaction impact between AI and employees, and builds an integrated model diagram for future research on AI awareness, which will help promote local relevant research. By answering the above questions, it is expected to provide theoretical reference for the subsequent research of scholars, enhance the academic community's cognition and understanding of how the application of AI affects employees, and provide new ideas for promoting the development of AI research. At the same time, it is revealed that managers in the era of Industry 4.0 should re-examine themselves, understand, learn and trust AI technology, use AI technology to develop new skills to improve their management ability, help organizations adopt AI technology more effectively, prevent risks and promote the healthy development of organizations. Managers must clarify the use of AI technology, allow employees to participate in the process of developing and implementing AI systems, eliminate misunderstandings and mistrust, and conduct AI technology training for employees, so that employees have more understanding of AI, reduce the sense of rejection of AI, and recognize that coexistence with AI is an inevitable development of the times. At the same time, it also informs employees that the purpose of applying AI is to help rather than replace them, relieve employees' anxiety and sense of threat, reduce their fear of unemployment, enhance employees' positive cognition of the application of AI, and then reduce their negative evaluation of the application of AI, and help organizations maximize the positive side of AI and reduce the dark side brought by AI. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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A meta-analysis of the relationship between perceived social support and student academic achievement: The mediating role of student engagement WU Jiahui, FU Hailun, ZHANG Yuhuan Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (4): 552-569.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00552 Abstract （3127）   HTML （247）    PDF （982KB）（4604）       Knowledge map    Academic achievement can be considered as a measure of student's knowledge level and adaptation to school. As a valid indicator for quantitatively assessing the effectiveness of national education, academic achievement has become a key concern for students, parents, schools, and society. While intrinsic motivation is important in the process of increasing academic achievement goals, extrinsic support is equally essential for students. In recent years, empirical studies based on social cognitive theory have analyzed the relationship between social support and academic achievement, revealing that perceived social support is more predictive and functional. With continuing advances in developmental psychology, current research is increasingly focusing on the mediating mechanisms between perceived social support and academic achievement. Student engagement is a specific indicator of student involvement in the learning process and an important measure of learning competence; thus, it can positively and significantly predict academic achievement. However, there are no uniform findings on how perceived social support and its sub-indicators affect academic achievement, and the extent to which both are influenced by student engagement factors has not thus far been definitively addressed. In addition, the current meta-analysis failed to comprehensively validate the correlation between perceived social support and academic achievement, exploring only the relationship between the three indicators of perceived social support and academic achievement, and the study tended to focus on a single dimension such as autonomy support. Moreover, current meta-analyses have not yet comprehensively revealed the mediating role of student engagement, with most studies focusing on integrating effect sizes and exploring possible moderating variables, using samples that do not involve mediating variables or the studies have devoted themselves to exploring the effects of multiple factors (e.g., individuals' cognitive and non-cognitive factors) and their chained relationships on academic achievement, with inclusion samples covering multiple mediating variables. In light of this, the current study classified perceived social support based on the microsystems that most directly influence student development in ecological systems theory and used meta-analysis to obtain reliable estimates of effect sizes, mediating effects of student engagement, and a range of moderating effects in conjunction with self-system processes theory. A total of 41 empirical research and 78 studies were included through literature retrieval. The results were as follows: (1) There was a significant positive correlation between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement; however, because the effect values were small, a weak correlation was indicated, with perceived social support as a whole having the strongest correlation, followed by perceived teacher support, perceived parental support, and perceived peer support. In addition, perceived social support and its sub-indicators were found to be positively related to student engagement. The effect of perceived social support and its sub-indicators on student engagement was higher than academic achievement. (2) Student grade moderated the relationship between perceived teacher support and academic achievement only. Academic achievement indicators moderated the link between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement, while the moderating effects of economic level and cultural background on the relationship between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement were not significant. (3) The direct effect pathway between perceived social support and its sub-indicators and academic achievement showed a significant positive correlation. Student engagement partially mediated the effect of perceived social support and its sub-indicators on academic achievement. In addition, the partial mediating effect of student engagement was only significant for students in the junior high school group and not for the senior high school group. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effects of gender nonconformity on adolescent peer evaluation and related dynamics WEN Fangfang, KE Wenlin, FANG Zeming, WANG Yang, LEI Yatian, ZUO Bin Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (8): 1331-1341.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01331 Abstract （3360）   HTML （188）    PDF （874KB）（4333）       Knowledge map    Inherent gender is an important dimension of self-identity and social categorization, and has a huge impact on individual psychology, interpersonal relationships, intergroup behaviors and social development. Gender stereotypes, gender socialization and gender attitudes have been stable themes in disciplines, such as social psychology, developmental and educational psychology and sociology. Gender is the core component of the self-concept and an important dimension of social categorization. Gender Nonconformity is a psychological phenomenon in which individuals display gender norms that do not correspond or are inconsistent with their birth sex. In recent years, the phenomenon of Gender Nonconformity has become increasingly prominent among adolescents, and previous studies have shown that Gender Nonconformity adolescents face challenges in social adjustment such as peer relationships. Although some research paradigms and theoretical findings have been accumulated in the area of Gender Nonconformity and related areas, there are still limitations. Although some research paradigms and theoretical findings have been accumulated in the area of Gender Nonconformity and related areas, there are still limitations. Firstly, previous studies have mainly adopted the traditional binary approach of gender conformity and non-conformity; secondly, there is a lack of cognitive-motivational pathways to examine the prototypical matching and avoidance intentions of Gender Nonconformity in influencing adolescents' peer evaluations; thirdly, previous studies have mainly adopted a static perspective on gender-biased peer evaluations, ignoring the dynamic processes of gender-biased generation and evolution. To address these limitations, this study will break through the gender binary category and explain the psychological mechanisms of static effects and dynamic changes of Gender Nonconformity on peer evaluation from the perspective of the relationship between basic attributes and gender attributes, and provide possible interventions to change the negative peer evaluation of Gender Nonconformity individuals. The specific aims of the study include: firstly, to develop and provide neurophysiological evidence for the basic attributes of Gender Nonconformity; secondly, to reveal the cognitive-motivational dual-path mechanism of prototype matching and avoidance intention in the process of Gender Nonconformity influencing peer evaluation; and thirdly, to explore the dynamic evolutionary mechanism of Gender Nonconformity influencing peer evaluation. Focusing on the above three research aims, this study systematically examines the influence of Gender Nonconformity on peer evaluation and its evolutionary psychological mechanisms according to a progressive research hierarchy of "realization layer - algorithmic layer - computational layer". The study includes three aspects. (1) A polymorphic refinement examines the effects of Gender Nonconformity on peer evaluation, constructs a view of the underlying attributes of Gender Nonconformity and provides behavioral and neurophysiological evidence of the layers of realization. (2) A dual cognitive-motivational pathway mechanism for Gender Nonconformity to influence peer evaluation is revealed at the algorithmic level. The social cognitive paradigm is used to explore the cognitive activation of "prototype matching" and the motivational activation of "intention to avoid" in the process of Gender Nonconformity influencing peer evaluation through questionnaires, behavioral experiments and situational experiments. (3) Exploring the dynamic evolutionary mechanisms of Gender Nonconformity in peer evaluation from the abstract computational level. Using reinforcement learning paradigms, computational modelling, implicit measurement, contextual experiments and live experiments, the prototype formation process of Gender Nonconformity peer evaluations is simulated using reinforcement learning models based on a dual pathway of cognition and motivation to explore the dynamic evolutionary mechanisms of gender-biased peer evaluations and possible intervention pathways for negative peer evaluations of gender-biased individuals. The findings of this study can provide some managerial and educational insights into the effective promotion of youth gender development, peer relationships and mental health based on a gender perspective. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Structural measures, multidimensional effects and formation mechanisms of workplace fear of missing out SHI Guanfeng, WU Yuying, PANG Huiwei, LIU Zhaohui, XIE Zhihui Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (8): 1374-1388.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01374 Abstract （1458）   HTML （100）    PDF （743KB）（4306）       Knowledge map    Fear of missing out (FoMO) is a widespread and negative psychological phenomenon in the workplace with obvious cultural characteristics. The existing studies on workplace FoMO are mainly based on the Western context, which are not fully applicable to Chinese workplace employees who are deeply influenced by their traditional culture and concepts of “relationship,” “favor,” and “face.” Therefore, in this study, we explored the conceptual content, measurement dimensions, multidimensional effects, and formation mechanisms of workplace FoMO in the Chinese context through three consecutive sub-studies. In Study 1, we used a constructivist grounded theory as the research methodology to reconstruct the concept and connotation of workplace FoMO based on Chinese cultural contexts, such as “the pattern of difference sequence,” “favor and face,” and “hidden rules.” A standardized psychometric procedure was used to measure workplace FoMO among Chinese employees. In Study 2, we conducted a diary study to longitudinally track the dynamic effects of workplace FoMO on individuals’ work, family, and health domains. Based on the job demands-resources model, the effects of workplace FoMO on an individual’s work domain (work engagement), family domain (work-family conflict), and health outcomes (physical discomfort), as well as the boundary roles played by leader-member and colleague exchanges, were verified under the resource depletion and acquisition paths. The study findings suggest that workplace FoMO, as a negative psychological aspect of an individual’s workplace, not only impairs the resources that the individual should devote to work and family, but it also has an impact on one’s physical and mental health. When individuals experience workplace FoMO, they may be more reluctant to miss out on news at work and opportunities to build social relationships. Thus, they may become more socially demanding in the workplace. As a mechanism of “avoiding harm,” leader-member and colleague exchanges can promote the generation of positive psychological resources and alleviate the multidimensional resource depletion caused by workplace FoMO. In Study 3, we employed a two-stage data collection method to test the formation mechanism model of workplace FoMO and effectiveness of inhibitory strategies at both the mindset and institutional levels. Based on the social comparison theory, individuals in Chinese society are influenced by the education of role models and the “learn from others” mentality; they tend to determine whether they are missing out on potential resources by comparing themselves with others. Particularly, they tend to choose individuals perceived as superior to themselves as reference objects for upward comparisons. Based on the social comparison theory, study findings suggest that upward social comparison is a key factor in the formation of workplace FoMO. In addition, according to the uncertainty management theory, differences in comparative attribution mindsets (growth and fixed mindsets) and the degree of fairness (procedural and distributive fairness) in an organization are important situational factors that influence the formation mechanism of FoMO. The contributions of this study are the following three innovations. First, we explored the connotation and structure of workplace FoMO in the Chinese context, and developed a scientific and effective measurement tool for subsequent workplace FoMO studies. Second, we studied the multidimensional effects of Chinese employees’ FoMO in the work, family, and health domains and proposed mitigation strategies from the perspective of resource acquisition. Third, this study is based on the social comparison and uncertainty management theories, and we were the first to explore the formation mechanism of workplace FoMO in the Chinese context and propose intervention measures at both the individual and organizational levels. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Personality dynamics: The integration of process and trait WU Fan, HU Yueqin Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (7): 1269-1287.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01269 Abstract （4530）   HTML （132）    PDF （1011KB）（4070）       Knowledge map    Personality dynamics is a research perspective that focuses on intra-individual processes and their relationship with inter-individual personality traits such as Big Five. From the beginning, personality psychology has emphasized the dynamic nature of personality. Early theories of personality dynamics have been proposed but were not tested due to restrictions in methodology until the last two decades when the widespread use of intensive longitudinal analyses brought the personality dynamic approach back into focus. Theories of personality dynamics have several emphases: (1) distinguishing between stable and unstable components in the personality system; (2) the personality system is self-regulating; (3) situational and environmental factors are integral to understanding personality; and (4) personality is a multi-process system. While different theories of personality dynamics share the goal of explaining the underlying processes of observable personality traits, they can be further divided into personality process models and integrative models according to their different theoretical emphases. Personality process models focus on the influencing factors and mechanisms that produce behaviors in different contexts, i.e., why people behave differently in different situations. Prominent theoretical perspectives include theories that explain behaviors based on neurophysiology (e.g., the reinforcement sensitivity theory), the social-cognitive theories that explain behaviors via processes such as information processing, goal pursuit, and self-regulation (e.g., the cognitive-affective personality system model), and theories that emphasize the different types of interactions between persons and situations/environments (e.g, the person-environment relations model). In contrast, personality integrative theories attempt to integrate personality process models and trait models, focusing on explaining the causes of stable intra- and inter-individual personality structures by zooming in on the evolutional basis of human beings or the complex interactions of dynamic social-cognitive processes. Research questions include, for example, “What is the specific set of causal processes that underlie a specific trait?”, or “What are the causing forces underlying the inter-individual personality structures such as the big five personality traits?”. Representative theories addressing these issues include the whole trait theory, the knowledge-and-appraisal model of personality architecture, and the cybernetic big five theory. Empirical research on personality dynamics employs a range of methods designed to analyze the within-person multivariate dynamic functioning, the complex interrelationships therein, and the relationships between processes and traits. Intensive longitudinal design with the experience sampling method is commonly used. Intensive longitudinal data are usually analyzed using statistical models that can handle multi-level structures (e.g., multilevel models, multilevel structural equation modes), reciprocal relationship (e.g., dynamic structural equation models and group iterative multiple model estimation), multivariate network system analysis and visualization (e.g., graphical network analysis), and system-level feature extraction (e.g., dynamic system models). Based on these methods, applied personality research in organizational, educational, and clinical psychology has made progress on topics such as within-person variability in personality states and their correlation with variables of interest in the related field. Future research could address the following issues. Theoretically, researchers should pay attention to the distinctions and connections between intra-individual and inter-individual personality structures. Also, theories of personality dynamics, which focuses on the personality of normal individuals, can be integrated with the theory of psychopathology. In addition, future researchers can also consider how to incorporate temporal effects into theories. Empirically, future researchers could: incorporate different sampling methods, such as self-reports, others’ reports, behavioral indicators, and electronic footprints, to further sort out the sources of variance in personality states; measure multiple psychological processes simultaneously, such as the biological, cognitive, affective, and motivational processes underlying a particular trait; manipulate or measure personality states in a clearer and more precise manner to ensure that they are representative of the chosen personality, for example, measure personality facets rather than traits; and report reliability at the within-person level in multilevel analyses. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Using word embeddings to investigate human psychology: Methods and applications BAO Han-Wu-Shuang, WANG Zi-Xi, CHENG Xi, SU Zhan, YANG Ying, ZHANG Guang-Yao, WANG Bo, CAI Hua-Jian Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (6): 887-904.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00887 Abstract （2544）   HTML （140）    PDF （1098KB）（3999）       Knowledge map    As a fundamental technique in natural language processing (NLP), word embedding quantifies a word as a low-dimensional, dense, and continuous numeric vector (i.e., word vector). This process is based on machine learning algorithms such as neural networks, through which semantic features of a word can be extracted automatically. There are two types of word embeddings: static and dynamic. Static word embeddings aggregate all contextual information of a word in an entire corpus into a fixed vectorized representation. The static word embeddings can be obtained by predicting the surrounding words given a word or vice versa (Word2Vec and FastText) or by predicting the probability of co-occurrence of multiple words (GloVe) in large-scale text corpora. Dynamic or contextualized word embeddings, in contrast, derive a word vector based on a specific context, which can be generated through pre-trained language models such as ELMo, GPT, and BERT. Theoretically, the dimensions of a word vector reflect the pattern of how the word can be predicted in contexts; however, they also connote substantial semantic information of the word. Therefore, word embeddings can be used to analyze semantic meanings of text. In recent years, word embeddings have been increasingly applied to study human psychology. In doing this, word embeddings have been used in various ways, including the raw vectors of word embeddings, vector sums or differences, absolute or relative semantic similarity and distance. So far, the Word Embedding Association Test (WEAT) has received the most attention. Based on word embeddings, psychologists have explored a wide range of topics, including human semantic processing, cognitive judgment, divergent thinking, social biases and stereotypes, and sociocultural changes at the societal or population level. Particularly, the WEAT has been widely used to investigate attitudes, stereotypes, social biases, the relationship between culture and psychology, as well as their origin, development, and cross-temporal changes. As a novel methodology, word embeddings offer several unique advantages over traditional approaches in psychology, including lower research costs, higher sample representativeness, stronger objectivity of analysis, and more replicable results. Nonetheless, word embeddings also have limitations, such as their inability to capture deeper psychological processes, limited generalizability of conclusions, and dubious reliability and validity. Future research using word embeddings should address these limitations by (1) distinguishing between implicit and explicit components of social cognition, (2) training fine-grained word vectors in terms of time and region to facilitate cross-temporal and cross-cultural research, and (3) applying contextualized word embeddings and large pre-trained language models such as GPT and BERT. To enhance the application of word embeddings in psychological research, we have developed the R package “PsychWordVec”, an integrated word embedding toolkit for researchers to study human psychology in natural language. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of scarcity mindset on the executive function in children living in poverty and its mechanisms JIANG Ying, HU Jia, FENG Liangyu, REN Qidan Advances in Psychological Science    2024, 32 (5): 728-737.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.00728 Abstract （2247）   HTML （200）    PDF （565KB）（3763）       Knowledge map    China has now embarked on the new journey of rural revitalization from poverty eradication to the elimination of absolute poverty. Thus, how to comprehensively and effectively measure the rapidly changing environment after poverty eradication, investigate the negative impact of potential poverty on children's cognitive development, and reveal its internal mechanisms have become important scientific issues at present. Therefore, this project intends to systematically examine the impact of experiencing multidimensional poverty on school-age children's executive function and explore its mechanisms based on scarcity mindset. First, with the current income of poverty-stricken families exceeding the poverty line, there are several potential poverty subordinate conditions that require consideration and could construct a dynamic poverty model under the context of rural revitalization. Thus, it is necessary to summarize the meaning of multidimensional poverty comprehensively and examine the impact of the transformation of poverty dimensions on children's executive function over a long time span. Second, as much attention has been paid to the environment or individual characteristics in explaining poverty in previous studies, the perception of poverty has always been ignored despite its leading role in children’s development. In fact, based on the implicit theory, the perception will gradually form a specific mindset which allows individuals to organize and encode information in terms of life experiences and often leads their development. However, the role of scarcity in children is still unclear. Accordingly, this study extends the findings of previous work on scarcity theory in younger Chinese samples to explain the adverse effects of poverty on executive function and reveals the internal mechanisms underlying the scarcity mindset. Specifically, this project includes four studies. Study 1 proposes a multidimensional overlapping deprivation analysis method to assess children's poverty experiences and examines the effect of multi-poverty and its changing patterns over time on executive function using potential transition analysis. Study 2 intends to clarify the moderating role of scarcity on the relation between poverty and executive function in a sample of school-aged children through a moderation-of-process design. Based on the results above, Study 3 ties to explore the multiple attention mechanisms of scarcity between poverty and decreased executive function for confused components (i.e., selective attention and sustained attention) in the attention process. To better understand scarcity mindset, which is a more generalized mindset or primed state for children in poverty, study 4 will use fMRI to explore the neural mechanisms of scarcity under different scarcity priming conditions. Overall, considering the profound impact of early child development, education should parallel poverty reduction and sustainable development. China is now still exploring a path at this stage that corresponds with its own national conditions and is suitable for preventing children from returning to poverty when they grow up. This not only requires the improvement of material environments but also the consideration of psychological aspects to ensure the healthy development of children who have experienced poverty. Therefore, this study creatively starts from children’s initiative in understanding and constructing the world, not only broadens the perception of children’s experiences in poverty but also fills the gap that often considers economic background while ignoring the subject’s interaction with the environment. In addition, the results of attention and neural mechanisms of poverty and decreased executive function help distinguish the key attention components of scarcity, providing scientific evidence for precise interventions. Thus, in future education, this study provides a new perspective that changing the scarcity mindset could alleviate the cognitive impairment of children in poverty. Combined with the characteristics of children's development, corresponding intervention courses could be designed for schools that allow impoverished children to experience and grow in actual participation and serve the construction of rural revitalization in China. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The conceptualization, antecedents and interventions of occupational calling in Chinese context XIE Baoguo, ZHANG Xiaowen, MIAO Jialing, ZHANG Xinrou, XU Jia Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (12): 2219-2231.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.02219 Abstract （1842）   HTML （104）    PDF （752KB）（3757）       Knowledge map    Under the dual impact of the digital transformation of enterprises and individuals’ increasingly strong pursuit of deeper work meaning, a good grasp of occupational calling is an important prerequisite for improving organizational performance and human resource management practices. Existing research on occupational calling neglects the uniqueness of Chinese context, of which there is also little research on the antecedents for dynamics, and interventions of occupational calling. This research attempts to fill these important gaps in the Chinese context. Specifically, this research attempts to enrich and expand the theoretical research in the following three ways: (a) drawing on the collective self-fulfillment perspective of Chinese culture, this research identifies the core components of occupational calling, and develops an indigenous occupational calling scale, (b) based on the self-determination theory, this research adopts a rigorous longitudinal research design to explore the antecedents for dynamics of occupational calling, and (c) based on micro-management practices, this research adopts a journaling intervention to examine the roles of social impact and social worth interventions in stimulating employees’ occupational calling. Theoretically, this study enriches and extends calling literature on the conceptualization, antecedents, and micro-interventions. First, it provides a new perspective for understanding the connotation and structure of occupational calling. Occupational calling is a concept with strong cultural dependence, and different cultural groups may have different understandings. Considering the cultural differences between the East and the West, and the rich interpretation of China culture itself, this study takes the emic orientation to deeply explore the connotation and structure of the occupational calling in the context of China, and develops a measurement tool. Second, this study expands and enriches the research on the antecedents of occupational calling. Generally, there are few researches on the antecedents and influencing mechanisms of occupational calling. To date, limited studies mostly use cross-sectional research, and the causal relationship between variables is difficult to determine. Moreover, the existing research mainly investigates the positive factors of the dynamic change of occupational calling from the facilitation perspective, neglecting the negative factors of calling from the inhibitory perspective. The investigation of the negative factors that cause the dynamic change of occupational calling greatly deepens people’s theoretical understanding of the protective factors of occupational calling. Third, it fills the research gap of the stimulating mechanism of occupational calling. Literature shows that the occupational calling can be stimulated through micro-management practice. However, to date, only two studies have explored the stimulation of occupational calling. In this study, the effects of social worth and social value interventions on occupational calling were examined, which fills the important theoretical and practical gap in this field. In practice, this study provides organizations with practical implications for how to protect and improve employees’ occupational calling. First, it is conducive to solving the management problem that it is difficult to integrate personal goals with organizational goals. How to achieve the integration of personal goals and organizational goals has always been one of the core issues in organizational management. The application of the research results is conducive to the effective integration of organizational goals and employee goals, and to achieve a win-win situation for both organizations and employees. Secondly, the results provide a reliable organizational tool for human resource management studies and practices. On the one hand, it provides an effective cross-cultural empirical tool for scholars to empirical study occupational calling. On the other hand, it provides a reliable personnel selection and evaluation tool for human resource management. Third, this study provides an important scientific support for all kinds of organizations on how to protect, promote and stimulate their employees’ occupational calling. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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More than inhibition: Self-control strategy and the mechanism of its application CHEN Xuefei, LI Zhenhua, NIE Yangang Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (8): 1528-1540.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01528 Abstract （1767）   HTML （146）    PDF （577KB）（3585）       Knowledge map    Research has shown that self-control was not only an effort made to inhibit impulses, but people also actively promoted self-control through the application of various strategies. The five strategy types proposed by the process model of self-control include situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment, cognitive change, and reaction inhibition strategies. These strategies are considered to contain the majority of self-control strategies used in people's daily life and are also the most often used strategy types in current studies. Plan, personal rules, or habit strategies bypass the evaluation stage of self-control conflict, and it is a shortcut strategy. Other studies have divided self-control strategies into self-deployed interventions and other-deployed interventions, mental tools, and behavioral tools. People commonly use at least one strategy for resisting desires, and in 25% of cases more than one strategy is used. According to existing literature, people use cognitive strategies most, but not the most forward-looking situational strategies. This may be because the use of cognitive strategies is not affected by situational factors, and it is therefore more convenient. The reaction inhibition strategy is not the least used strategy. According to the current situation of self-control and the type of desire, people would give priority to using certain strategies to achieve the long-term goals. The preference for using such strategies may not be due to the perceived effectiveness of the strategies, but because of other reasons, such as ease of use or feasibility. In addition, the possibility of people using certain strategies will be reduced in some situations, possibly because these strategies are considered difficult or impossible. Substantial studies have confirmed that early strategies are more effective than late strategies. One possible reason is that early strategies mainly intervene with the process of temptation generation and reinforcement, which may reduce the intensity of temptation. Because the use of situational selection strategies needs to predict the temptation in advance, in some situations, attention deployment and cognitive change strategies could play a greater role than situational strategies. Although some studies have demonstrated that late strategy is not very effective, other studies have also shown that the late strategy can effectively inhibit impulse. On the one hand, the reasons for the inconsistent results might be due to participants' understanding of the use of strategies. They attribute the success of self-control to inhibition. On the other hand, self-control includes both active control and passive control. Efforts to suppress impulse also play an important role in the process of self-control. The effectiveness of self-control strategies will change with the types of desire conflicts and specific self-control situations that individual experience. The level of individual trait self-control, personality differences, and the number of self-control strategies used also affect the effectiveness of strategies. Understanding the applied mechanism of self-control strategies contributes to the success of self-control. Future research needs to more thoroughly explore the flexibility and variability of the application of self-control strategies, and the mechanism of applying multiple strategies with a focus on the relationship between self-control strategies and the improvement of self-control ability, and to improve intervention research on the application of self-control strategies. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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From anthropomorphic attribution to alliance establishment: The effect of human-chatbot relationships on engagement MO Ran, FANG Jiandong, CHANG Baorui Advances in Psychological Science    2023, 31 (9): 1742-1755.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.01742 Abstract （2095）   HTML （92）    PDF （803KB）（3491）       Knowledge map    With the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) technology, AI chatbots have shown great potential in simulating human guidance to improve the engagement and efficacy of Internet-based self-help interventions (ISIs). Given that studies on the mechanisms of chatbots are still in the early stages, there is a need to conduct research that can help deepen our rational understanding of designing more targeted chatbots and further promoting the effectiveness of ISIs. Recently, researchers have focused on human-chatbot relationships (HCRs) and have attempted to explain the mechanisms of chatbot effectiveness from this perspective. As HCRs share some similarities with human-human relationships (HHRs), some HHR theories, such as social penetration theory, may be used to explain HCRs in ISIs. However, relying solely on HHR theories to explain HCRs in ISIs has some limitations, such as overlooking the early cognitive processing of human-computer interactions (HCIs) and ignoring the core goals of psychotherapy in ISIs. In response to these limitations, we propose a theoretical model that is particularly suitable for the ISI context from the perspective of HCI. Our model suggests that chatbots can gradually develop relationships with users through four stages: anthropomorphic attribution, utilitarian value judgment, attachment relationship development, and the establishment of the digital therapeutic alliance (DTA). These can ultimately promote user engagement through HCRs. First, when users interact with chatbots, they unconsciously treat them as if they were actual persons due to their human-like qualities or conversational ability, resulting in anthropomorphic attribution. As a result, users tend to interact with chatbots through interpersonal communication strategies. The effect of anthropomorphism will be amplified as the frequency of interaction increases, thereby promoting the development of HCRs. Consequently, we propose that anthropomorphic attribution be the primary starting point for developing HCRs. Second, users tend to judge the utilitarian value of chatbots in the early stages of HCR development to determine whether their actual needs can be met. Therefore, whether or not chatbots can demonstrate their true effectiveness based on user expectations in terms of usability, ease of use, and expectation confirmation is likely to influence user acceptance and engagement with them. With the growth in users’ recognition, familiarity, and confidence in chatbots, their notion of anthropomorphism improves, indirectly enhancing user attitudes and further developing HCRs. Third, user participation in ISIs is influenced by anthropomorphic attribution and utilitarian value judgment in the short term. Given that emotional factors are becoming increasingly important in sustaining user engagement over time, users are likely to further anthropomorphize chatbots based on social motivation and establish an attachment relationship with them. The positive emotions experienced when interacting with chatbots deepen the HCRs, shifting relationships from “tools” to “partners.” When users’ attachment to chatbots is transferred to their attachment to ISI tasks, they are more likely to actively engage in the treatment, allowing for the effective use of chatbots in psychotherapy. Finally, to achieve better therapeutic goals of ISIs, HCRs should be further developed into DTA—a deliberate and purposeful HCR model. Additionally, the stage-wise development of HCRs has laid a good foundation for establishing DTA. As the development of DTA can enhance and stabilize user engagement, future research can make valuable contributions by evaluating key HCR theories and constructing chatbots based on these theories. Apart from the topics stated above, there is a need to examine additional variables that affect HCRs, standardize operational definitions of engagement, and develop appropriate methods for measuring engagement. Ultimately, by developing our theoretical model, we contribute to the improvement of chatbot effectiveness in the field of psychotherapy through the promotion of a deeper rational understanding of HCRs. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics