反馈对自我欺骗的影响：来自ERP的证据

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2022.00481

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

本研究主要探讨反馈类型和反馈效价对自我欺骗的影响。实验1采用前瞻范式探究不同效价的模糊反馈对自我欺骗的影响, 结果发现, 相比于无答案提示组, 有答案提示组的被试在积极模糊反馈的条件下显著地提高测试2第二阶段的预测分数(自我欺骗的程度加重)。实验2探究不同效价的精确反馈对自我欺骗的影响, 结果发现, 相对于无答案提示组, 有答案提示组的被试在消极精确反馈条件下显著地降低测试2第二阶段的预测分数。实验3采用ERP技术探究反馈类型和反馈效价影响自我欺骗的内在机制, 结果发现, 模糊反馈条件下的自我欺骗诱发较大的P2成分、诱发较小的N1和N400成分; 以及发现自我欺骗在额区的效应较大。总之, 这些研究结果表明可能积极反馈促进个体的自我欺骗产生, 消极反馈削弱个体自我欺骗的产生; 积极模糊反馈能够进一步促进了个体自我欺骗的产生。这些研究结果还表明自我欺骗产生的背后机制可能是自我膨胀。

关键词: 自我欺骗, 反馈类型, 反馈效价, 前瞻范式, 事件相关电位

Abstract:

Self-deception is a motivation to see the world in a way that benefits oneself. Previously, researchers have explored self-deception from a single research perspective. The focus on singular variables have made it impossible to understand an individual’s processing of self-deception from a holistic perspective. Researchers of self-deception not only need to seek stable research results but also need to continuously adopt a more comprehensive research perspective to explore self-deception.
This study mainly explored the influence of feedback types and feedback valence on self-deception. Experiment 1 used the forward-looking paradigm to explore the influence of fuzzy feedback with differing valences on self-deception. The scores (measures of self-deception) in the first stage of test 2 in the answer prompt group and the no-answer prompt group were significantly different. The prediction scores in the second stage of test 2 were also significantly different, and compared with the participants in the no-answer prompt group, the participants in the answer prompt group increased their prediction scores in the second stage of test 2 under conditions involving positive fuzzy feedback. Experiment 2 explored the impact of precise feedback with differing valences on self-deception. The scores for the two groups of participants in the first stage of test 2 were significantly different. Compared with the no-answer prompt group, the answer prompt group received accurate feedback; however, these conditions did not produce higher prediction scores in the second stage of test 2. Experiment 3 used ERP technology to explore the internal mechanisms related to different types of feedback and the feedback valence that had differential effects on self-deception. The participants engaged in more self-deception in conditions with fuzzy feedback; self-deception in conditions with fuzzy feedback induced a larger P2 component and induced smaller N1 and N400 components. Finally, it was found that the frontal area had the greatest effects on self-deception.
In short, the results of this research showed that positive feedback promoted the generation of individuals' self-deception, while negative feedback weakened the generation of individuals' self-deception; positive fuzzy feedback further promoted the generation of individuals' self-deception. The results of this research also indicated that the mechanism underlying self-deception may be self-inflation.

Key words: self-deception, feedback type, feedback valence, forward-looking paradigm, event-related potential

中图分类号:

范伟, 任梦梦, 张文洁, 钟毅平. (2022). 反馈对自我欺骗的影响：来自ERP的证据. 心理学报, 54(5), 481-496.

FAN Wei, REN Mengmeng, ZHANG Wenjie, ZHONG Yiping. (2022). The impact of feedback on self-deception: Evidence from ERP. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 54(5), 481-496.

图/表 15

图1 实验1的实验流程图。A.测试1的实验流程图; B.测试2的实验流程图; C. 3种反馈条件

表1 无答案提示组和有答案提示组的被试在测试2第一阶段的得分(M ± SD)

分数	M ± SD	t	p
测试2的预测分数
无答案提示组	48.36 ± 13.34	-4.83^***	0.00
有答案提示组	65.36 ± 13.88	-4.83^***	0.00
测试2的真实分数
无答案提示组	53.82 ± 6.95	-0.22	0.83
有答案提示组	54.26 ± 8.91	-0.22	0.83
测试2的预测与真实分数之差
无答案提示组	-4.95 ± 14.85	-2.10^*	0.04
有答案提示组	9.80 ± 16.95	-2.10^*	0.04

图2 测试2第二阶段不同效价模糊反馈的预测分数; 误差线表示标准误, *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001, 下同.

图3 实验2的实验流程图。A.测试1的实验流程图; B.测试2的实验流程图; C. 3种反馈条件

表2 无答案提示组和有答案提示组的被试在测试2第一阶段的得分(M ± SD)

分数	M ± SD	t	p
测试2的预测分数
无答案提示组	52.93 ± 16.59	-2.89^*	0.006
有答案提示组	64.57 ± 13.66	-2.89^*	0.006
测试2的真实分数
无答案提示组	53.72 ± 7.53	-0.52	0.61
有答案提示组	54.82 ± 8.50	-0.52	0.61
测试2的预测与真实分数之差
无答案提示组	0.79 ± 19.57	-2.12^*	0.038
有答案提示组	9.75 ± 147.91	-2.12^*	0.038

图4 两组被试在测试2中不同效价精确反馈条件下的预测分数

图5 A.实验3的测试1流程图; B.实验3的测试2流程图; C. 4种反馈条件注：在B部分“若有50道‘红点判断题’, 您预测可以回答正确的个数为‘F > 34; J < 34’”, 其中“50”这个数字的选择是根据实验1和实验2在测试2进行预测判断的题目而来, 而“34” (如预测题目“50”的三分之二分值)这个数字的选择是根据实验1和实验2被试对测试2第一阶段的预测分数进行计算而来, 因为前两个实验都发现被试对90个题目的预测大约在“答对60道题目”。红框表示记录脑电成分的界面。

表3 三个实验(有答案提示组的被试)在自我欺骗量表上的得分(M ± SD)

组别	N	M ± SD	F	p
实验1的有答案提示组	35	83.20 ± 12.10	0.23	0.80
实验2的有答案提示组	33	81.77 ± 11.72
实验3的有答案提示组	35	81.40 ± 11.45

表4 三个实验中有无答案提示组的被试在测试2第一阶段的结果比较

组别	N	M ± SD	F	p
实验1的无答案提示组	35	48.36 ± 13.34	12.50^***	0.00
实验2的无答案提示组	33	52.93 ± 16.59
实验3的有答案提示组	35	81.40 ± 11.45

图6 四种反馈条件下自我欺骗出现的次数

图7 四种不同反馈条件的反应时

图8 四个条件在Fz和FCz电极点的N1 (时间窗：0~50 ms)的ERP总平均图、脑地形图和所有分析点的N1成分平均值柱状图, *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

图9 四个条件在Fz和FCz电极点的P2 (时间窗：100~250 ms)的ERP总平均图、脑地形图和所有分析点的P2成分平均值柱状图, *p < 0.05;**p < 0.01;***p < 0.001

图10 四个条件在Fz和FCz电极点的N400 (时间窗：300~500 ms)的ERP总平均图、脑地形图和所有分析点的N400成分平均值柱状图, *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

图11 测试2第一阶段的预测分数与N400成分的相关分析

参考文献 61

[1]	Bandura, A. (2011). Self-deception: A paradox revisited. Behavioral Brain Sciences, 34(1), 16-17. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X10002499 URL
[2]	Bayne, T., & Fernández, J. (2009). Delusion and self-deception: Mapping the terrain. In T. Bayne & J. Fernandez (Eds.), Delusion and self-deception: Affective and motivational influences on belief formation (pp. 1-21). Psychology Press.
[3]	Chance, Z., Gino, F., Norton, M. I., & Ariely, D. (2015). The slow decay and quick revival of self-deception. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1075. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01075 pmid: 26347666
[4]	Chance, Z., & Norton, M. I. (2015). The what and why of self-deception. Current Opinion in Psychology, 6, 104-107. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.07.008 URL
[5]	Chance, Z., Norton, M. I., Gino, F., & Ariely, D. (2011). Temporal view of the costs and benefits of self-deception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(Suppl. 3), 15655-15659. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1010658108 URL
[6]	Chen, T. B., & Chai, L. T. (2010). Attitude towards the environment and green products: Consumers’ perspective. Management Science and Engineering, 4(2), 27-39.
[7]	Dana, J., Cain, D. M., & Dawes, R. M. (2006). What you don’t know won’t hurt me: Costly (but quiet) exit in dictator games. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 100(2), 193-201. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.10.001 URL
[8]	Delorme, A., & Makeig, S. (2004). EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 134(1), 9-21. doi: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009 pmid: 15102499
[9]	Dijkstra, P. D., Schaafsma, S. M., Hofmann, H. A., & Groothuis, T. G. (2012). ‘Winner effect’ without winning: Unresolved social conflicts increase the probability of winning a subsequent contest in a cichlid fish. Physiology & Behavior, 105(2), 489-492. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.029 URL
[10]	Duran, K. A., O’Halloran, H., Soder, H., Yasin, S., Kramer, R., Rosen, S., Brenya, J., Chavarria, K., Savitska, L., & Keenan, J. P. (2020). The medial prefrontal cortex: A potential link between self-deception and affect. International Journal of Neuroscience, 131(7), 701-707. doi: 10.1080/00207454.2020.1753729 URL
[11]	Egerton, A., Rees, E., Bose, S. K., Lappin, J. M., Stokes, P., & Turkheimer, F. E., Reeves, S. J. (2010). Truth, lies or self-deception? striatal d (2/3) receptor availability predicts individual differences in social conformity. NeuroImage, 53(2), 777-781. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.06.031 pmid: 20558302
[12]	Fan, W., Yang, B., Liu, J., & Fu, X. (2017). Self-deception: For adjusting individual psychological states. Advances in Psychological Science, 25(8), 1349-1359. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2017.01349 URL
	[范伟, 杨博, 刘娟, 傅小兰. (2017). 自我欺骗为了调节个体心理状态. 心理科学进展, 25(8), 1349-1359.]
[13]	Farrow, T. F. D., Burgess, J., Wilkinson, I. D., & Hunter, M. D. (2015). Neural correlates of self-deception and impression- management. Neuropsychologia, 67, 159-174. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.12.016 pmid: 25527112
[14]	Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using GPower 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods*, 41(4), 1149-1160. doi: 10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149 URL
[15]	Federmeier, K. D., & Kutas, M. (2001). Meaning and modality: Influences of context, semantic memory organization, and perceptual predictability on picture processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27(1), 202-224. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.27.1.202 URL
[16]	Foster, G., & Frijters, P. (2014). The formation of expectations: Competing theories and new evidence. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, 53, 66-81. doi: 10.1016/j.socec.2014.08.001 URL
[17]	Galeotti, A. E. (2016). Straight and twisted self-deception. Phenomenology and Mind, 11, 90-99.
[18]	Gao, J. (2021). Self-deception and pragmatic encroachment: A dilemma for epistemic rationality. Ratio, 34(1), 20-32. doi: 10.1111/rati.12288 URL
[19]	Gneezy, U., Saccardo, S., & van Veldhuizen, R. (2019). Bribery: Behavioral drivers of distorted decisions. Journal of the European Economic Association, 17(3), 917-946. doi: 10.1093/jeea/jvy043
[20]	Grossman, Z., & van der Weele, J. J. (2017). Self-image and willful ignorance in social decisions. Journal of the European Economic Association, 15(1), 173-217. doi: 10.1093/jeea/jvw001 URL
[21]	Gur, R. C., & Sackeim, H. A. (1979). Self-deception: A concept in search of a phenomenon. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 37(2), 147-169.
[22]	Haisley, E. C., & Weber, R. A. (2010). Self-serving interpretations of ambiguity in other-regarding behavior. Games & Economic Behavior, 68(2), 614-625.
[23]	Holroyd, C. B., Hajcak, G., & Larsen, J. T. (2006). The good, the bad and the neutral: Electrophysiological responses to feedback stimuli. Brain Research, 1105(1), 93-101. pmid: 16427615
[24]	Jian, Z., Zhang, W., Tian, L., Fan, W., & Zhong, Y. (2019). Self-deception reduces cognitive load: The role of involuntary conscious memory impairment. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.
[25]	Ju, S. E., Zhao, Y., & Fu, X. (2003). Cognitive mechanism of self- deception. Journal of Sun Yat-sen University (Social Science Edition), 43(5), 19-26.
	[鞠实儿, 赵艺, 傅小兰. (2003). 自我欺骗的认知机制. 中山大学学报(社会科学版), 43(5), 19-26.]
[26]	Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480-498. pmid: 2270237
[27]	Kutas, M., & Federmeier, K. D. (2011). Thirty years and counting: Finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 621-647. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.131123 URL
[28]	Kutas, M., & Hillyard, S. A. (1980). Reading senseless sentences: Brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity. Science, 207(4427), 203-205. pmid: 7350657
[29]	Lai, V. T., & Huettig, F. (2016). When prediction is fulfilled: Insight from emotion processing. Neuropsychologia, 85, 110-117. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.03.014 URL
[30]	Lauria, F., & Preissmann, D. (2018). What does emotion teach us about self-deception? Affective neuroscience in support of non-intentionalism. In Les ateliers de l'éthique/The Ethics Forum (Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 70-94). Centre de recherche en éthique de l’Université de Montréal.
[31]	Liu, J., Zhang, W., Zhan, Y., Song, L., Guan, P., Kang, D. Jian, J., Cai, R., & Li, M. (2019). The effect of negative feedback on positive beliefs in self-deception. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 702. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00702 URL
[32]	Liu, Y., & Shu, H. (2003). ERP and language studies. Advances in Psychological Science, 11(3), 296-302.
	[刘燕妮, 舒华. (2003). ERP与语言研究. 心理科学进展, 11(3), 296-302.]
[33]	Lopez, J. K., & Fuxjager, M. J. (2012). Self-deception’s adaptive value: Effects of positive thinking and the winner effect. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(1), 315-324. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2011.10.008 URL
[34]	Mele, A. R. (1997a). Real self-deception. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 20, 91-136.
[35]	Mele, A. R. (1997b). Understanding and explaining real self-deception. Behavioral Brain Sciences, 20(1), 127-134.
[36]	Näätänen, R., Paavilainen, P., Rinne, T., & Alho, K. (2007). The mismatch negativity (MMN) in basic research of central auditory processing: A review. Clinical Neurophysiology, 118(12), 2544-2590. pmid: 17931964
[37]	Neuber, S. (2016). Self-awareness and self-deception: A Sartrean perspective. Continental Philosophy Review, 49(4), 485-507. doi: 10.1007/s11007-016-9368-2 URL
[38]	Nieuwenhuis, S., Aston-Jones, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). Decision making, the P3, and the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system. Psychological Bulletin, 131(4), 510-532. pmid: 16060800
[39]	Paulmann, S., & Kotz, S. A. (2008). Early emotional prosody perception based on different speaker voices. Neuroreport, 19(2), 209-213. doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282f454db pmid: 18185110
[40]	Plöchl, M., Ossandón, J. P., & König, P. (2012). Combining EEG and eye tracking: Identification, characterization, and correction of eye movement artifacts in electroencephalographic data. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 278.
[41]	Quattrone, G. A., & Tversky, A. (1984). Causal versus diagnostic contingencies: On self-deception and on the voter's illusion. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 46(2), 237-248.
[42]	Ren, M., Zhong, B., Fan, W., Dai, H., Yang, B., Zhang, W., Yin, Z., Liu, J., Li, J., & Zhan, Y. (2018). The influence of self-control and social status on self-deception. Frontier in Psychology, 9, 1256.
[43]	Rottenburger, J. R., Carter, C. R., & Kaufmann, L. (2019). It’s alright, it’s just a bluff: Why do corporate codes reduce lying, but not bluffing?. Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, 25(1), 30-39. doi: 10.1016/j.pursup.2018.02.004
[44]	Schapkin, S. A., Gusev, A. N., & Kuhl, J. (2000). Categorization of unilaterally presented emotional words: An ERP analysis. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, 60(1), 17-28. pmid: 10769926
[45]	Schwardmann, P., & van der Weele, J. (2019). Deception and self-deception. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(10), 1055-1061. doi: 10.1038/s41562-019-0666-7 pmid: 31358973
[46]	Sharma, M., Modi, S., Khushu, S., & Mandal, M. K. (2010). Neural activation pattern in self-deceivers. Psychological Studies, 55(1), 71-76. doi: 10.1007/s12646-010-0008-3 URL
[47]	Sheridan, Z., Boman, P., Mergler, A., & Furlong, M. J. (2015). Examining well-being, anxiety, and self-deception in university students. Cogent Psychology, 2(1), 993850. doi: 10.1080/23311908.2014.993850 URL
[48]	Sloman, S. A., Fernbach, P. M., & Hagmayer, Y. (2010). Self- deception requires vagueness. Cognition, 115(2), 268-281. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.12.017 URL
[49]	Smith, M. K., Trivers, R., & von Hippel, W. (2017). Self- deception facilitates interpersonal persuasion. Journal of Economic Psychology, 63, 93-101. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2017.02.012 URL
[50]	Stahl, J., Wiese, H., & Schweinberger, S. R. (2010). Learning task affects ERP-correlates of the own-race bias, but not recognition memory performance. Neuropsychologia, 48(7), 2027-2040. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.03.024 URL
[51]	Surbey, M. K. (2011). Adaptive significance of low levels of self-deception and cooperation in depression. Evolution and Human Behavior, 32(1), 29-40. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.08.009 URL
[52]	Tan, C., Zhu, C., & Song, H. (2020). The effect of emotional valency and emotional arousal on self-deception. Journal of Neijiang Normal University, 35(10), 1-6.
	[谭成慧, 朱传林, 宋欢. (2020). 情绪效价和情绪唤醒度对自我欺骗的影响. 内江师范学院学报, 35(10), 1-6.]
[53]	Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193-210. pmid: 3283814
[54]	Uziel, L., & Cohen, B. (2020). Self-deception and discrepancies in self-evaluation. Journal of Research in Personality, 88, 1-5.
[55]	von Hippel, W., & Trivers, R. (2011). The evolution and psychology of self-deception. Behavioral & Brain Science, 34(1), 1-16; discussion 16-56.
[56]	Wang, Y., Kuhlman, D. M., Roberts, K., Yuan, B., Zhang, Z., Zhang, W., & Simons, R. F. (2017). Social value orientation modulates the FRN and P300 in the Chicken Game. Biological Psychology, 127, 89-98. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.04.012 URL
[57]	Zhong, L., & Mo, L. (2019). A commentary on empirical study of self-deception. Journal Psychological Science, 42(3), 709-714.
	[钟罗金, 莫雷. (2019). 自我欺骗实证研究述评. 心理科学, 42(3), 709-714.]
[58]	Zhong, L., & Ru, T. (2021). A Cognitive processing model of self-deception. Journal of South China Normal University (Social Science Edition), (3), 81-89.
	[钟罗金, 汝涛涛. (2021). 自我欺骗的认知加工: 模型及其构建. 华南师范大学学报 (社会科学版), (3), 81-89.]
[59]	Zhong, L., Ru, T., Fan, M., & Mo, L. (2019). The effect of cognitive vagueness and motivation on conscious and unconscious self-deception. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 51(12), 1330-1340. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.01330 URL
	[钟罗金, 汝涛涛, 范梦, 莫雷. (2019). 认知模糊程度和动机强度对有意识和无意识自我欺骗的影响. 心理学报, 51(12), 1330-1340. ]
[60]	Zhu, J., & Jiang, J. (2014). Self-deception: A new topic in contemporary psychology. Science of Social Psychology, 2, 53-58.
	[朱晶, 蒋京川. (2014). 自欺:当代心理学研究新主题. 社会心理科学, 2, 53-58.]
[61]	Zhu, Y., Xi, S., & Wu, Y. (2016). Self-deception in autobiographical narrative: Individuals’ self-identity strategy. Advances in Psychological Science, 24(12), 1917-1925. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2016.01917 URL
	[朱艳丽, 席思思, 吴艳红. (2016). 自传体叙事中的自我欺骗: 个体的自我认同策略. 心理科学进展, 24(12), 1917-1925.]