近年来的研究发现, 通过训练个体的工作记忆能力可以提高其流体智力水平. 但是, 以往的研究混淆了工作记忆存储功能与中央执行功能对训练效果的影响. 该研究采用活动记忆任务, 通过双盲对照实验设计, 对9~11岁儿童的工作记忆刷新能力进行训练. 研究结果发现, 通过工作记忆刷新能力的训练, 儿童的流体智力得到显著提高. 研究表明, 通过工作记忆训练使得流体智力水平提高与工作记忆中央执行功能的改善有关.

Background: Working memory is linked to learning outcomes and there is emerging evidence that training working memory can yield gains in working memory and fluid intelligence. Aims: The aim of the present study was to investigate whether interactive working memory training would transfer to acquired cognitive skills, such as vocabulary and academic attainment. Sample: To determine the efficacy of memory training in improving cognitive skills, we randomly allocated high school-aged students with learning difficulties into one of two groups. The Training group participated in an interactive working memory training program, while the Control group received targeted educational support for an equivalent amount of time. All participants were tested on measures of vocabulary, academic attainment (spelling and arithmetic), and working memory before and after training. Results: The findings indicate that the Training group performed significant better in working memory, vocabulary, and math

The aim of the present study was to investigate the construct stability and diagnostic validity of a standardised computerised tool for assessing working memory: the Automated Working Memory Assessment (AWMA). The purpose of the AWMA is to provide educators with a quick and effective tool to screen for and support those with memory impairments. Findings indicate that working memory skills in children with memory impairments are relatively stable over the course of the school year. There was also a high degree of convergence in performance between the AWMA and the WISC V Working Memory Index. The educational implications are discussed.

AbstractVarious sources of information demonstrate a tight link between visuospatial and...

Mathematical ability is dependent on specific mathematical training but also associated with a range of cognitive factors, including working memory (WM) capacity. Previous studies have shown that WM training leads to improvement in non-trained WM tasks, but the results regarding transfer to mathematics are inconclusive. In the present study, 176 children with WM deficits, aged 7-15 years performed 5 weeks of WM training. During the training period, they were assessed five times with a test of complex WM (the Odd One Out), a test of remembering and following instructions and a test of arithmetic. The improvements were compared to the performance of a control group of 304 typically developing children aged 7-15 years who performed the same transfer tasks at the same time intervals, but without training. The training group improved significantly more than the control group on all three transfer tests (all p < 0.0001), after correction for baseline performance, age and sex. The effect size for mathematics was small and the effect sizes for the WM tasks were moderate to large. The transfer increased linearly with the amount of training time and correlated with the amount of improvement on the trained tasks. These results confirm previous findings of training-induced improvements in non-trained WM tasks including the ability to follow instructions, but extend previous findings by showing improvements also for arithmetic. This is encouraging regarding the potential role of cognitive training for education, but it is desirable to find paradigms that would enhance the effect of the training on mathematics. One of the future challenges for studying training effects is combining large sample sizes with high quality and compliance, to detect relevant but smaller effects of cognitive training.

Abstract Few studies have examined working memory (WM) training-related gains and their transfer and maintenance effects in older adults. This present research investigates the efficacy of a verbal WM training program in adults aged 65-75 years, considering specific training gains on a verbal WM (criterion) task as well as transfer effects on measures of visuospatial WM, short-term memory, inhibition, processing speed, and fluid intelligence. Maintenance of training benefits was evaluated at 8-month follow-up. Trained older adults showed higher performance than did controls on the criterion task and maintained this benefit after 8 months. Substantial general transfer effects were found for the trained group, but not for the control one. Transfer maintenance gains were found at follow-up, but only for fluid intelligence and processing speed tasks. The results are discussed in terms of cognitive plasticity in older adults. (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved).

Presents a stochastic model for distinguishing mental arithmetic errors according to causes of failure. A series of experiments (1) studied questions of goodness of fit and model validity among four and five year olds and (2) used the model to measure the relative contributions of developmental improvements in short-term memory and arithmetical processing to age changes in mental arithmetic. (Author/RH)

We examine the relations of verbal and spatial working memory (WM) ability to the neural bases of arithmetic in school-age children. We independently localize brain regions subserving verbal versus spatial representations. For multiplication, higher verbal WM ability is associated with greater recruitment of the left temporal cortex, identified by the verbal localizer. For multiplication and subtraction, higher spatial WM ability is associated with greater recruitment of right parietal cortex, identified by the spatial localizer. Depending on their WM ability, children engage different neural systems that manipulate different representations to solve arithmetic problems.

This study of working memory training investigates the impact of intervention with memory training on students' school performance. The training consisted of 25 occasions spread over five weeks. A total of 32 students from the first grade of primary school participated in the study, with 16 students in the intervention and 16 in the control group. Before and after the intervention, all the participants were tested on word decoding skills, reading comprehension, and automated mental arithmetic. The results showed that both groups had improved on all tests after the intervention, but that the intervention group performed significantly better on the word decoding test than the control group. However, this study demonstrated no differences due to memory training with regard to mental arithmetic between the intervention group and the control group. A possible interpretation of the result is that structured memory training is beneficial for students reading development.

61The factor structure of number sense and working memory predictors are investigated.61Number sense factors are symbolic and nonsymbolic number processing.61Symbolic processing is predicted by central executive and visuospatial sketchpad.61Nonsymbolic processing is predicted by central executive, but not slave systems.

Working memory, including central executive functions (inhibition, shifting and updating) are factors thought to play a central role in mathematical skill development. However, results reported with regard to the associations between mathematics and working memory components are inconsistent. The aim of this meta-analysis is twofold: to investigate the strength of this relation, and to establish whether the variation in the association is caused by tests, sample characteristics and study and other methodological characteristics. Results indicate that all working memory components are associated with mathematical performance, with the highest correlation between mathematics and verbal updating. Variation in the strength of the associations can consistently be explained by the type of mathematics measure used: general tests yield stronger correlations than more specific tests. Furthermore, characteristics of working memory measures, age and sample explain variance in correlations in some analyses. Interpretations of the contribution of moderator variables to various models are discussed.

61The tripartite model of working memory fits well in children.61Working memory predicts 66% of the variance in children's intelligence.61Short-term visuospatial memory also explains a large portion of the variance in children's intelligence.

We used an individual-differences approach to test whether general fluid intelligence (gF) is mediated by brain regions that support attentional (executive) control, including subregions of the prefrontal cortex. Forty-eight participants first completed a standard measure of gF (Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices). They then performed verbal and nonverbal versions of a challenging working-memory task (three-back) while their brain activity was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Trials within the three-back task varied greatly in the demand for attentional control because of differences in trial-to-trial interference. On high-interference trials specifically, participants with higher gF were more accurate and had greater event-related neural activity in several brain regions. Multiple regression analyses indicated that lateral prefrontal and parietal regions may mediate the relation between ability (gF) and performance (accuracy despite interference), providing constraints on the neural mechanisms that support gF.

Working memory is a critical element of complex cognition, particularly under conditions of distraction and interference. Measures of working memory capacity correlate positively with many measures of real-world cognition, including fluid intelligence. There have been numerous attempts to use training procedures to increase working memory capacity and thereby performance on the real-world tasks that rely on working memory capacity. In the study reported here, we demonstrated that training on complex working memory span tasks leads to improvement on similar tasks with different materials but that such training does not generalize to measures of fluid intelligence.

Working memory performance was examined in children aged 11-12 years who had borderline, mild, and moderate learning disabilities. Comparisons with children of average abilities were used to determine whether those with more severe learning disabilities had greater impairments in working memory. Seven measures of working memory span were used to assess temporary phonological short-term storage (digit span, word span), temporary visuo-spatial short-term storage (pattern span, spatial span), and temporary short-term storage with additional processing, or central executive, demands (listening span, odd one out span, reverse digit span). Children with mild and moderate learning disabilities were impaired on all measures of working memory compared to children of average abilities. Children with borderline learning disabilities were just as good as children with average abilities on visuo-spatial and complex span tasks, but showed an impairment on phonological span tasks. Children with moderate learning disabilities were indistinguishable from children with mild learning disabilities on simple span tasks, but were significantly poorer than the mild group on the more demanding complex span tasks. For the group as a whole, working memory was strongly related to mental age.

In two experiments, participants performed a magnitude comparison task in single and dual-task conditions. In the dual conditions, the comparison task was accomplished while phonological or visuospatial information had to be maintained for a later recall test. The results showed that the requirement of maintaining visuospatial information produced the lack of spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect. The SNARC effect was not found even when the performance in the comparison task did not decline, as indicated by a similar distance effect in all conditions. These results show a special role for the visuospatial component of working memory in the processing of spatial representation of numbers and an interesting dissociation between SNARC and distance effects.

Siegel & Ryan (1989) reported that children with specific arithmetical learning difficulties (ALD) were impaired if they had to retain temporary information concurrently with counting visual arrays, but not if the concurrent operations were non-mathematical. This selective deficit was attributed to an impaired arithmetical working memory system. In the present study 15 children aged eight to nine with ALD were compared with 15 normally achieving controls. Experiment 1 examined performance on a number of tasks assessing span for information storage during concurrent operations. The results confirmed that children with ALD are impaired on concurrent span only when the operations involve counting and showed that this holds independently of the visuospatial or auditory-verbal characteristics of the task. Experiment 2 went on to investigate the possibility that children with ALD might be impaired at counting or retaining temporary information when each is assessed in isolation. The ALD group tended to count more slowly than controls and had lower auditory digit spans. It is argued that these deficits can account for the selective impairment of ALD children on concurrent counting span, without appealing to a special, arithmetical working memory system. Possible interpretations of the cognitive deficits associated with ALD and their implications for the ability to perform arithmetical skills are discussed.

Working memory plays a crucial role in supporting learning, with poor progress in reading and mathematics characterizing children with low memory skills. This study investigated whether these problems can be overcome by a training program designed to boost working memory. Children with low working memory skills were assessed on measures of working memory, IQ and academic attainment before and after training on either adaptive or non-adaptive versions of the program. Adaptive training that taxed working memory to its limits was associated with substantial and sustained gains in working memory, with age-appropriate levels achieved by the majority of children. Mathematical ability also improved significantly 6 months following adaptive training. These findings indicate that common impairments in working memory and associated learning difficulties may be overcome with this behavioral treatment.

Fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to reason and to solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge. Gf is critical for a wide variety of cognitive tasks, and it is considered one of the most important factors in learning. Moreover, Gf is closely related to professional and educational success, especially in complex and demanding environments. Although performance on tests of Gf can be improved through direct practice on the tests themselves, there is no evidence that training on any other regimen yields increased Gf in adults. Furthermore, there is a long history of research into cognitive training showing that, although performance on trained tasks can increase dramatically, transfer of this learning to other tasks remains poor. Here, we present evidence for transfer from training on a demanding working memory task to measures of Gf. This transfer results even though the trained task is entirely different from the intelligence test itself. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the extent of gain in intelligence critically depends on the amount of training: the more training, the more improvement in Gf. That is, the training effect is dosage-dependent. Thus, in contrast to many previous studies, we conclude that it is possible to improve Gf without practicing the testing tasks themselves, opening a wide range of applications.

Does cognitive training work? There are numerous commercial training interventions claiming to improve general mental capacity; however, the scientific evidence for such claims is sparse. Nevertheless, there is accumulating evidence that certain cognitive interventions are effective. Here we provide evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive (often called "brain") training. However, we demonstrate that there are important individual differences that determine training and transfer. We trained elementary and middle school children by means of a videogame-like working memory task. We found that only children who considerably improved on the training task showed a performance increase on untrained fluid intelligence tasks. This improvement was larger than the improvement of a control group who trained on a knowledge-based task that did not engage working memory; further, this differential pattern remained intact even after a 3-mo hiatus from training. We conclude that cognitive training can be effective and long-lasting, but that there are limiting factors that must be considered to evaluate the effects of this training, one of which is individual differences in training performance. We propose that future research should not investigate whether cognitive training works, but rather should determine what training regimens and what training conditions result in the best transfer effects, investigate the underlying neural and cognitive mechanisms, and finally, investigate for whom cognitive training is most useful.

The objective of this study was to compare performance on different versions of the running span task, and to examine the relationship between task performance and tests of episodic memory and executive function. We found that the average capacity of the running span was approximately 4 digits, and at long sequence lengths, performance was no longer affected by varying the running span window. Both episodic and executive function measures correlated with short and long running spans, suggesting that a simple dissociation between immediate memory and executive processes in short and long running digit span tasks may not be warranted.

J Exp Psychol. 1958 Apr;55(4):352-8.

This study investigated the relationship between working memory and early numeracy. It aimed to explore the possibility of training young children working memory and to investigate the effects of such training both on working memory and on the specific domain of early numerical skills. Measures of working memory and numeracy were used with low-performing children in kindergarten. A total of 51 five-year-old children received one of two different versions of working memory training or no training at all. The two versions differed in the type of information the children were given to practice: non-numerical or numerical. After a pretest, 4 weeks of intervention took place, followed by a posttest. Children who participated in one of the working memory interventions significantly improved their working memory skills. Furthermore, their early numeracy skills also improved. Differences between both experimental conditions were small.

Previous studies have shown that early numeracy skills predict later mathematics learning and that they can be improved by training. Cognitive abilities, especially working memory (WM), play an important role in early numeracy, as well. Several studies have shown that working memory is related to early numeracy. So far, existing literature offers a good few examples of studies in which WM training has led to improvements in early numerical performance as well. In this study, we aim at investigating the effects of two different training conditions: (1) counting training; and (2) simultaneous training of WM and counting on five- to six-year-old preschoolers' (N = 61) counting skills. The results show that domain-specific training in mathematical skills is more effective in improving early numerical performance than WM and counting training combined. Based on our results, preschool-aged children do not seem to benefit from short period group training of WM skills. However, because of several intervening factors, one should not conclude that young children's WM training is ineffectual. Instead, future studies should be conducted to further investigate the issue.

ABSTRACT Investiga0401es recentes utilizando a memória de trabalho tem mostrado que é possível treinar a inteligência. Este trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a efetividade de um programa de treinamento de memória de trabalho para melhorar a inteligência de crian04as. Participaram do estudo cinquenta e três crian04as brasileiras do sexto ano do ensino fundamental (M= 11,17 anos, DP= 0,37), as quais foram aleatoriamente designadas para compor o grupo experimental/GE (n=27) e o grupo controle/GC (n = 26). No pré-teste e no pós-teste, as crian04as foram avaliadas com medidas cognitivas e de desempenho escolar. Para o programa de treinamento foram utilizadas três tarefas de memória de trabalho. O treinamento cognitivo foi administrado ao GE duas vezes por semana por oito semanas. O pós-teste foi realizado duas semanas após o final do treinamento. N00o foram encontradas diferen04as significativas entre o grupo de treinamento e controle no pós-teste para nenhuma das medidas cognitivas e de desempenho escolar. Os resultados encontrados encontram suporte parcial na literatura e apontam para dificuldade de se encontrar mudan04as intelectuais genuínas com programas de interven0400o de curta dura0400o.

It has been suggested that working memory training programs are effective both as treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other cognitive disorders in children and as a tool to improve cognitive ability and scholastic attainment in typically developing children and adults. However, effects across studies appear to be variable, and a systematic meta-analytic review was undertaken. To be included in the review, studies had to be randomized controlled trials or quasi-experiments without randomization, have a treatment, and have either a. treated group or an untreated control group. Twenty-three studies with 30 group comparisons met the criteria for inclusion. The studies included involved clinical samples and samples of typically developing children and adults. Meta-analyses indicated that the programs produced reliable short-term improvements in working memory skills. For verbal working memory, these near-transfer effects were not sustained at follow-up, whereas for visuospatial working memory, limited evidence suggested that such effects might be maintained. More importantly, there was no convincing evidence of the generalization of working memory training to other skills (nonverbal and verbal ability, inhibitory processes in attention, word decoding, and arithmetic). The authors conclude that memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not generalize. Possible limitations of the review (including age differences in the samples and the variety of different clinical conditions included) are noted. However, current findings cast doubt on both the clinical relevance of working memory training programs and their utility as methods of enhancing cognitive functioning in typically developing children and healthy adults.

Background. Two distinct abilities, mathematical reasoning and arithmetic skill, might make separate and specific contributions to mathematical achievement. However, there is little evidence to inform theory and educational practice on this matter.Aims. The aims of this study were (1) to assess whether mathematical reasoning and arithmetic make independent contributions to the longitudinal prediction of mathematical achievement over 5 years and (2) to test the specificity of this prediction.Sample. Data from Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) were available on 2,579 participants for analyses of KS2 achievement and on 1,680 for the analyses of KS3 achievement.Method. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to assess the independence and specificity of the contribution of mathematical reasoning and arithmetic skill to the prediction of achievement in KS2 and KS3 mathematics, science, and English. Age, intelligence, and working memory (WM) were controls in these analyses.Results. Mathematical reasoning and arithmetic did make independent contributions to the prediction of mathematical achievement; mathematical reasoning was by far the stronger predictor of the two. These predictions were specific in so far as these measures were more strongly related to mathematics than to science or English. Intelligence and WM were non-specific predictors; intelligence contributed more to the prediction of science than of maths, and WM predicted maths and English equally well.Conclusions. There is clear justification for making a distinction between mathematical reasoning and arithmetic skills. The implication is that schools must plan explicitly to improve mathematical reasoning as well as arithmetic skills.

ABSTRACT This paper aims at exploring the influences that learner’s factors have on second language teaching and learning. Firstly, this paper gives brief definitions of cognitive theory and the theory of behaviorism, which are relevant to learner’s individual factors. And then a learner’s most important factors such as motivation, aptitude and self-confidence are introduced to illustrate the influences these factors have made on second language learning and teaching. Some suggestions are given for English teaching and after a presentation of the taxonomy of language learning strategies, the training of language learning strategies is mentioned so as to throw light on the future work of language teaching and learning.

Many factors influence children performance in mathematical achievement, including both domain-specific and domain-general factors. This study aimed to verify and compare the effects of two types of training on early numerical skills. One type of training focused on the enhancement of working memory, a domain-general precursor, while the other focused on the enhancement of early numeracy, a domain-specific precursor. The participants were 48 five-year-old preschool children. Both the working memory and early numeracy training programs were implemented for 5 weeks. The results showed that the early numeracy intervention specifically improved early numeracy abilities in preschool children, whereas working memory intervention improved not only working memory abilities but also early numeracy abilities. These findings stress the importance of performing activities designed to train working memory abilities, in addition to activities aimed to enhance more specific skills, in the early prevention of learning difficulties during preschool years.

We tested the effectiveness of an intensive, on average 17-session, adaptive and computerized working-memory training program for improving performance on untrained, paper and pencil working memory tasks, standardized school achievement tasks, and teacher ratings of classroom behavior. Third-grade children received either a computerized working memory training for about 30 minutes per session (n = 156) or participated in regular classroom activities (n = 126). Results indicated strong gains in the training task. Further, pretest and posttest transfer measures of working memory and school achievement, as well as teacher ratings, showed substantial correlations with training task performance, suggesting that the training task captured abilities that were relevant for the transfer tasks. However, effect sizes of training-specific transfer gains were very small and not consistent across tasks. These results raise questions about the benefits of intensive working-memory training programs within a regular school context.

The underlying neural mechanisms of developmental dyscalculia (DD) are still far from being clearly understood. Even the behavioral processes that generate or influence this heterogeneous disorder are a matter of controversy. To date, the few studies examining functional brain activation in children with DD mainly focus on number and counting related tasks, whereas studies on more general cognitive domains that are involved in arithmetical development, such as working memory are virtually absent. There are several studies showing a close relationship between DD and spatial working memory [Camos, V. (2008). Low working memory capacity impedes both efficiency and learning of number transcoding in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 99(1), 37–57; McLean, J. F., & Hitch, G. J. (1999). Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetic learning difficulties. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 74(3), 240–260; Rosselli, M., Matute, E., Pinto, N., & Ardila, A. (2006). Memory abilities in children with subtypes of dyscalculia. Developmental Neuropsychology, 30(3), 801–818; Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. Child Development, 60(4), 973–980]. The relationship between these two mechanisms is still matter of debate, but this study follows the assumption that poor spatial working memory capacity may hinder the acquisition of spatial number representations in children with DD [Geary, D. C. (1993). Mathematical disabilities: Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components. Psychological Bulletin, 114(2), 345–362; von Aster, M., & Shalev, R. S. (2007). Number development and developmental dyscalculia. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 49(11), 868–873]. Using functional MRI the current study compares brain activity associated with spatial working memory processes in 8–10-year-old children with DD and normally achieving controls. Both groups showed significant spatial working memory related activity in a network including occipital and parietal regions. Children with DD showed weaker neural activation compared to the control group during a spatial working memory task in the right intraparietal sulcus (IPS), the right insula and the right inferior frontal lobe. Performance tests outside the scanner showed impaired working memory proficiency in children with DD. Bringing behavioral performance and neural activity together we found significant correlations of right IPS activity with performance on the verbal digit span forward and the spatial Corsi Block Tapping test. Our findings demonstrate for the first time an involvement of spatial working memory processes in the neural underpinnings of DD. These poor spatial working memory processes may inhibit the formation of spatial number representations (mental numberline) as well as the storage and retrieval of arithmetical facts.

Training working memory (WM) using computerized programs has been shown to improve functions directly linked to WM such as following instructions and attention. These functions influence academic performance, which leads to the question of whether WM training can transfer to improved academic performance. We followed the academic performance of two age-matched groups during two years. As part of the curriculum in grade 4 (age 9-10), all students in one classroom (n = 20) completed Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT) whereas children in the other classroom (n = 22) received education as usual. Performance on nationally standardized tests in math and reading comprehension was used as outcome measures at baseline and two years later. At baseline both classes were normal/high performing according to national standards. At grade 6, reading comprehension had improved to a significantly greater extent for the training group compared to the control group (medium effect size, Cohen d = 0.66, p = 0.045). For math performance the same pattern was observed with a medium effect size (Cohen d = 0.58) reaching statistical trend levels (p = 0.091). Moreover, the academic attainments were found to correlate with the degree of improvements during training (p-values 1 year) effects of WM training on academic performance. We found performance on both reading and math to be positively impacted after completion of CWMT. Since there were no baseline differences between the groups, the results may reflect an influence on learning capacity, with improved WM leading to a boost in students capacity to learn. This study is also the first to investigate the effects of CWMT on academic performance in typical or high achieving students. The results suggest that WM training can help optimize the academic potential of high performers.

Working memory is related to children's ability to solve analogies and other inductive reasoning tasks. The aim of this study was to examine whether working memory also plays a role in training and transfer effects of inductive reasoning in the context of a short training procedure within a pretest-training-posttest-transfer design. Participants were 64 children, aged 7-8 years (M = 7.6 years; SD = 4.7 months). All of the children were pre-tested on inductive reasoning and working memory tasks. The children were trained in figural analogy solving according to either the graduated prompts method or practice without feedback. The children were then post-tested on the trained task and three additional inductive reasoning measures. Regression models revealed that visuo-spatial working memory was related to initial performance on each of the inductive "reasoning tasks (r approximate to .35). Children's improvement from pretest to posttest in figural analogy solving, as measured with item response theory models, was somewhat related to visuo-spatial WM but not verbal WM scores or pretest scores. Furthermore, transfer of reasoning skills to an analogy construction task was related to initial ability, but not working memory; transfer to two inductive reasoning tasks with dissimilar content was not apparent. Performance change and ability to transfer trained skills to new tasks are not often used in psycho-educational assessment but may be separate constructs indicative of children's learning and change. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The aim of this review is to illustrate the role of working memory and executive functions for scholastic achievement as an introduction to the question of whether and how working memory and executive control training may improve academic abilities. The review of current research showed limited but converging evidence for positive effects of process-based complex working-memory training on academic abilities, particularly in the domain of reading. These benefits occurred in children suffering from cognitive and academic deficits as well as in healthy students. Transfer of training to mathematical abilities seemed to be very limited and to depend on the training regime and the characteristics of the study sample. A core issue in training research is whether high- or low-achieving children benefit more from cognitive training. Individual differences in terms of training-related benefits suggested that process-based working memory and executive control training often induced compensation effects with larger benefits in low performing individuals. Finally, we discuss the effects of process-based training in relation to other types of interventions aimed at improving academic achievement.

Many cognitive abilities, including working memory and reasoning ability, decline with progressing age. In this study, we investigated whether four weeks of intensive working memory training would enhance working memory and reasoning performance in an age-comparative setting. Groups of 34 young (19-36 years) and 27 older (62-77 years) adults practiced tasks representing the three functional categories in the facet model of working memory capacity: storage and processing, relational integration, and supervision. The data were compared to those of a young and an old active control group who practiced tasks with low working memory demands. A cognitive test battery measuring near and far transfer was administered before and after training. Both age groups showed increased working memory performance in the trained tasks and in one structurally similar, but nontrained, task. Young adults also improved in a task measuring word-position binding in working memory. However, we found no far transfer to reasoning in either age group. The results provide evidence that working memory performance can be improved throughout the life span. However, in contrast to a previous study in which each facet of working memory capacity was trained separately, the present study showed that training multiple functional categories simultaneously induces less transfer.