快速与慢速读者的中央凹加工对副中央凹预视的影响

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2020.00933

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

在中文阅读中, 预视量是否存在个体差异及其是否受中央凹加工调节, 尚不清楚。本研究采用眼动技术和边界范式, 通过操纵前目标词的加工负荷(高、低)与目标词的预视(相同、假字)来考察快速与慢速读者的中央凹加工对副中央凹预视的影响。结果显示, 中央凹负荷主效应显著; 快速读者对低负荷词的首次和单次注视短于高负荷词, 而慢速读者对两种负荷词的首次和单次注视无差异, 表明快速读者能更快利用词汇特性加工中央凹词汇。预视主效应显著, 即与假字预视相比, 相同预视使两组读者都对目标词的注视更短、向前眼跳更长、跳读率更高; 而且该效应与中央凹负荷没有交互作用。这表明快速读者与慢速读者提取了等量预视, 且不受其中央凹加工的调节。E-Z读者模型和SWIFT模型不能完全解释当前结果。

关键词: 快速读者, 慢速读者, 副中央凹预视, 中央凹加工负荷, 中文阅读

Abstract:

Parafoveal pre-processing contributes to highly efficient reading for skilled readers. Research has demonstrated that high-skilled or fast readers extract more parafoveal information from a wider parafoveal region more efficiently compared to less-skilled or slow readers. It is argued that individual differences in parafoveal preview are due to high-skilled or fast readers focusing less of their attention on foveal word processing than less-skilled or slow readers. In other words, foveal processing difficulty might modulate an individual's amount of parafoveal preview (i.e., Foveal Load Hypothesis). However, few studies have provided evidence in support of this claim. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore whether and how foveal lexical processing load modulates parafoveal preview of readers with different reading speeds (a commonly used measurement of reading skill or reading proficiency).

By using a three-minute reading comprehension task, 28 groups of fast and slow readers were selected from 300 participants (234 were valid) according to their reading speed in the current study. Participants were then asked to read sentences while their eye movements were recorded using an Eyelink 1000 eyetracker. Each experimental sentence contained a pre-target word that varied in lexical frequency to manipulate foveal processing load (low load: high frequency; high load: low frequency), and a target word manipulated for preview (identical or pseudo-character) within the boundary paradigm.

Global analyses showed that, although fast readers had similar accuracy of reading comprehension to slow readers, they had shorter reading times, longer forward saccades, made less fixations and regressions, and had higher reading speeds compared to slow readers, indicating that our selection of fast and slow readers was highly effective. The pre-target word analyses showed that there was a main effect of word frequency on first-pass reading times, indicating an effective manipulation of foveal load. Additionally, there were significant interactions of Reading Group × Word Frequency, and Reading Group × Word Frequency × Parafoveal Preview for first fixation and single fixation durations, showing that the frequency effects were reliable for fast readers rather than for slow readers with pseudocharacter previews, while the frequency effects were similar for the two groups with identical previews. However, the target word analyses did not show any three-way or two-way interactions for the first-pass reading times as well as for skipping probability. To be specific, the first-pass reading times were shorter at the target word with identical previews in relation to pseudocharacter previews (i.e. preview benefit effects); importantly, similar size effects occurred for both fast readers and slow readers.

The findings in the present study suggest that lexical information from the currently fixated word can be extracted and can be used quickly for fast readers, while such information is used later for slow readers. This, however, does not result in more (or less) preview benefit for fast readers in relation to slow readers. In conclusion, foveal lexical processing does not modulate preview benefit for fast and slow readers, and the present results provide no support for the Foveal Load Hypothesis. Our findings of foveal load effects on parafoveal preview for fast and slow readers cannot be readily explained by current computational models (e.g., E-Z Reader model and SWIFT model).

Key words: fast readers, slow readers, parafoveal preview, foveal processing load, Chinese reading.

中图分类号:

B842

张慢慢, 臧传丽, 徐宇峰, 白学军, 闫国利. (2020). 快速与慢速读者的中央凹加工对副中央凹预视的影响. 心理学报, 52(8), 933-945.

ZHANG Manman, ZANG Chuanli, XU Yufeng, BAI Xuejun, YAN Guoli. (2020). The influence of foveal processing load on parafoveal preview of fast and slow readers during Chinese reading. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 52(8), 933-945.

图/表 9

参考文献 53

[1]	Angele, B., Slattery, T. J., & Rayner, K. (2016). Two stages of parafoveal processing during reading: Evidence from a display change detection task. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23, 1241-1249. doi: 10.3758/s13423-015-0995-0 URL pmid: 26769246
[2]	Ashby, J., Rayner, K., & Clifton, C. (2005). Eye movements of highly skilled and average readers: Differential effects of frequency and predictability. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 58(6), 1065-1086.
[3]	Ashby, J., Yang, J. M., Evans, K. H., & Rayner, K. (2012). Eye movements and the perceptual span in silent and oral reading. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 74(4), 634-640.
[4]	Baayen, R. H., Davidson, D. J., & Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59(4), 390-412.
[5]	Bai, X. J., Liu, J., Zang, C. L., Zhang, M. M., Guo, X. F., & Yan, G. L. (2011). The advance of parafoveal preview effects in Chinese reading. Advances in Psychological Science, 19(12), 1721-1729.
	[ 白学军, 刘娟, 臧传丽, 张慢慢, 郭晓峰, 闫国利. (2011). 中文阅读过程中的副中央凹预视效应. 心理科学进展, 19(12), 1721-1729.]
[6]	Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 255-278.
[7]	Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67, 1-48.
[8]	Brothers, T., Hoversten, L. J., & Traxler, M. J. (2017). Looking back on reading ahead: No evidence for lexical parafoveal-on-foveal effects. Journal of Memory and Language, 96, 9-22. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2017.04.001 URL
[9]	Chace, K. H., Rayner, K., & Well, A. D. (2005). Eye movements and phonological parafoveal preview: Effects of reading skill. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(3), 209-217. doi: 10.1037/h0087476 URL pmid: 16248500
[10]	Clifton, C., Ferreira, F., Henderson, J. M., Inhoff, A. W., Liversedge, S. P., Reichle, E. D., & Schotter, E. R. (2016). Eye movements in reading and information processing: Keith Rayner's 40 year legacy. Journal of Memory and Language, 86, 1-19.
[11]	Drieghe, D.(2011). Parafoveal-on-foveal effects in eye movements during reading. In S. P. Liversedge, I. D. Gilchrist, & S. Everling (Eds.), Oxford library of psychology(pp. 839-855). The Oxford handbook on eye movements New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
[12]	Drieghe, D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (2005). Eye movements and word skipping during reading revisited. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 954-969. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.954 URL pmid: 16262491
[13]	Engbert, R & Kliegl, R. (2011). Parallel graded attention models of reading. In S. P. Liversedge, I. D. Gilchrist, & S. Everling (Eds.), Oxford library of psychology.The Oxford handbook of eye movements (pp.787-800). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
[14]	Engbert, R., Nuthmann, A., Richter, E. M., & Kliegl, R. (2005). SWIFT: A dynamical model of saccade generation during reading. Psychological Review, 112, 777-813. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.112.4.777 URL pmid: 16262468
[15]	Frömer, R., Dimigen, O., Niefind, F., Krause, N., Kliegl, R., & Sommer, W. (2015). Are individual differences in reading speed related to extrafoveal visual acuity and crowding?. PloS One, 10(3), e0121986. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121986 URL pmid: 25789812
[16]	Hawelka, S., Schuster, S., Gagl, B., & Hutzler, F. (2015). On forward inferences of fast and slow readers: An eye movement study. Scientific Reports, 58432. doi: 10.1038/srep08432 URL pmid: 25678030
[17]	Henderson, J. M., & Ferreira, F. (1990). Effects of foveal processing difﬁculty on the perceptual span in reading: Implications for attention and eye movement control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(3), 417-429. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.16.3.417 URL pmid: 2140401
[18]	Kuperman, V., & Van, Dyke, J., A. (2011). Effects of individual differences in verbal skills on eye-movement patterns during sentence reading. Journal of Memory and Language, 65(1), 42-73. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2011.03.002 URL pmid: 21709808
[19]	Li, X. S., Zang, C. L., Liversedge, S.P. 2015). The role of words in Chinese reading. In Pollatsek, A., & Treiman, R. (Eds), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of reading (pp. 232-244). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
[20]	Li, Y. G., Huang, R., Hua, H. M., & Li, X. S. (2017). How do readers select the saccade targets?. Advances in Psychological Science, 25(3), 404-412.
	[ 李玉刚, 黄忍, 滑慧敏, 李兴珊. (2017). 阅读中的眼跳目标选择问题. 心理科学进展, 25(3), 404-412.]
[21]	Liu, Y. P., Reichle, E. D., & Li, X. S. (2015). Parafoveal processing affects outgoing saccade length during the reading of Chinese. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41(4), 1229-1236. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000057 URL pmid: 25181495
[22]	Liversedge, S. P., Drieghe, D., Li, X., Yan, G. L., Bai, X. J., & Hyönä, J. (2016). Universality in eye movements and reading: A trilingual investigation. Cognition, 147, 1-20. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2015.10.013 URL pmid: 26605961
[23]	Marx, C., Hawelka, S., Schuster, S., & Hutzler, F. (2017). Foveal processing difficulty does not affect parafoveal preprocessing in young readers. Scientific Reports, 7, 41602. doi: 10.1038/srep41602 URL pmid: 28139718
[24]	Morey, R. D., Rouder, J. N., Jamil, T., Urbanek, S., Forner, K., & Ly, A. (2018). BayesFactor: Computation of Bayes factors for common designs. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=BayesFactor
[25]	R Core, Team. (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R foundation for statistical computing. Retrieved from https://www.r-project.org/
[26]	Rayner, K. (1975). The perceptual span and peripheral cues in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 7(1), 65-81.
[27]	Rayner, K. (1986). Eye movements and the perceptual span in beginning and skilled readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41(2), 211-236. doi: 10.1016/0022-0965(86)90037-8 URL pmid: 3701249
[28]	Rayner, K. (2009). The Thirty-fifth Sir Frederick Bartlett Lecture: Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(8), 1457-1506.
[29]	Rayner, K., Schotter, E. R., Masson, M. E., Potter, M. C., & Treiman, R. (2016). So much to read, so little time: How do we read, and can speed reading help?. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(1), 4-34. doi: 10.1177/1529100615623267 URL pmid: 26769745
[30]	Rayner, K., Slattery, T. J., & Bélanger, N. N. (2010). Eye movements, the perceptual span, and reading speed. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17(6), 834-839. doi: 10.3758/PBR.17.6.834 URL pmid: 21169577
[31]	Rayner, K., Yang, J. M., Schuett, S., & Slattery, T. J. (2013). Eye movements of older and younger readers when reading unspaced text. Experimental Psychology, 60, 354-361. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000207 URL pmid: 23681016
[32]	Reichle, E. D.. (2011). Serial-attention models of reading. In S. P. Liversedge, I. D. Gilchrist, & S. Everling (Eds.), Oxford library of psychology.The Oxford handbook of eye movements (pp. 767-786). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
[33]	Reichle, E. D., & Drieghe, D. (2013). Using E-Z Reader to examine word skipping during reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39(4), 1311-1320. doi: 10.1037/a0030910 URL pmid: 23206168
[34]	Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L., & Rayner, K. (1998). Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychological Review, 105 (1), 125-157. doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.105.1.125 URL pmid: 9450374
[35]	Risse, S. (2014). Effects of visual span on reading speed and parafoveal processing in eye movements during sentence reading. Journal of Vision, 14(8), 1-13. doi: 10.1167/14.8.1 URL pmid: 24986186
[36]	Schotter, E. R., Angele, B., & Rayner, K. (2012). Parafoveal processing in reading. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 74(1), 5-35.
[37]	Taylor, J. N., & Perfetti, C. A. (2016). Eye movements reveal readers' lexical quality and reading experience. Reading and Writing, 29(6), 1069-1103.
[38]	Vasilev, M. R., Slattery, T. J., Kirkby, J. A., & Angele, B. (2018). What are the costs of degraded parafoveal previews during silent reading?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44(3), 371-386. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000433 URL pmid: 28661179
[39]	Veldre, A., & Andrews, S. (2014). Lexical quality and eye movements: Individual differences in the perceptual span of skilled adult readers. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(4), 703-727.
[40]	Veldre, A., & Andrews, S. (2015a). Parafoveal lexical activation depends on skilled reading proficiency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41(2), 586-595. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000039 URL pmid: 25068856
[41]	Veldre, A., & Andrews, S. (2015b). Parafoveal preview benefit is modulated by the precision of skilled readers' lexical representations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 41(1), 219-232. doi: 10.1037/xhp0000017 URL pmid: 25384238
[42]	Veldre, A., & Andrews, S. (2018). How does foveal processing difficulty affect parafoveal processing during reading? Journal of Memory and Language, 103, 74-90. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2018.08.001 URL
[43]	Wang, A. P., Zhou, W., Shu, H., & Yan, M. (2014). Reading proficiency modulates parafoveal processing efficiency: Evidence from reading Chinese as a second language. Acta Psychologica, 152, 29-33. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.07.010 URL
[44]	Wang, Y. S., Zhao, B. J., Chen, M. J., Li, X., Yan, G. L., & Bai, X. J. (2018). Influence of the frequency of fixated words and the number of strokes of parafoveal words on saccadic target selection in Chinese reading. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 50(12), 1336-1345.
	[ 王永胜, 赵冰洁, 陈茗静, 李馨, 闫国利, 白学军. (2018). 中央凹加工负荷与副中央凹信息在汉语阅读眼跳目标选择中的作用. 心理学报, 50(12), 1336-1345.]
[45]	White, S. J., Rayner, K., & Liversedge, S. P. (2005). Eye movements and the modulation of parafoveal processing by foveal processing difficulty: A reexamination. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 891-896. doi: 10.3758/bf03196782 URL pmid: 16524007
[46]	Yan, G. L., Li, S. N., Wang, Y. L., Liu, M., & Wang, L. H. (2018). The perceptual span of Chinese second graders. Journal of Psychological Science, 41(4), 849-855.
	[ 闫国利, 李赛男, 王亚丽, 刘敏, 王丽红. (2018). 小学二年级学生汉语阅读知觉广度的眼动研究. 心理科学, 41(4), 849-855.]
[47]	Yan, G. L., Wang, L. H., Wu, J. G., & Bai, X. J. (2011). The perceptual span and parafoveal preview effect of fifth graders and college students: An eye movement study. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 43(3), 249-263.
	[ 闫国利, 王丽红, 巫金根, 白学军. (2011). 不同年级学生阅读知觉广度及预视效益的眼动研究. 心理学报, 43(3), 249-263.]
[48]	Yan, G. L., Xiong, J. P., & Bai, X. J. (2008). Eye movement studies on the perceptual span of Chinese reading by fifth graders. Psychological Development and Education, 24(1), 72-77.
	[ 闫国利, 熊建萍, 白学军. (2008). 小学五年级学生汉语阅读知觉广度的眼动研究. 心理发展与教育, 24(1), 72-77.]
[49]	Yan, G. L., Xiong, J. P., Zang, C. L., Yu, L. L., Cui, L., & Bai, X. J. (2013). Review of eye-movement measures in reading research. Advances in Psychological Science, 21(4), 589-605.
	[ 闫国利, 熊建萍, 臧传丽, 余莉莉, 崔磊, 白学军. (2013). 阅读研究中的主要眼动指标评述. 心理科学进展, 21(4), 589-605.]
[50]	Yan, M. (2015). Visually complex foveal words increase the amount of parafoveal information acquired. Vision research, 111, 91-96. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2015.03.025 URL pmid: 25911574
[51]	Zang, C. L., Fu, Y., Bai, X. J., Yan, G. L., & Liversedge, S. P. (2018). Investigating word length effects in Chinese reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 44(12), 1831-1841. doi: 10.1037/xhp0000589 URL pmid: 30475051
[52]	Zang, C. L., Zhang, M. M., Bai, X. J., Yan, G. L., Paterson, K. B., & Liversedge, S. P. (2016). Effects of word frequency and visual complexity on eye movements of young and older Chinese readers. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(7), 1409-1425.
[53]	Zhang, M. M., Liversedge, S. P., Bai, X. J., Yan, G. L., & Zang, C. L. (2019). The influence of foveal lexical processing load on parafoveal preview and saccadic targeting during Chinese reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 45(6), 812-825. doi: 10.1037/xhp0000644 URL pmid: 31120302

组别	判断句子总数	正确判断句子数	正确率 (%)	平均反应时 (ms)
快速组	130 (9)	125 (10)	96 (2.6)	1380 (94)
慢速组	73 (6)	70 (6)	96 (2.3)	2500 (244)

组别	判断句子总数	正确判断句子数	正确率 (%)	平均反应时 (ms)
快速组	130 (9)	125 (10)	96 (2.6)	1380 (94)
慢速组	73 (6)	70 (6)	96 (2.3)	2500 (244)

中央凹加工负荷	词频(次/百万)	笔画数	句子通顺性	前目标词预测性(%)	目标词预测性(%)
低负荷	242.9 (295.7)	16.8 (1.8)	4.0 (0.3)	1.3 (3.7)	2.3 (4.9)
高负荷	0.4 (0.3)	16.6 (1.9)	3.9 (0.3)	0.6 (2.5)	4.5 (7.7)

中央凹加工负荷	词频(次/百万)	笔画数	句子通顺性	前目标词预测性(%)	目标词预测性(%)
低负荷	242.9 (295.7)	16.8 (1.8)	4.0 (0.3)	1.3 (3.7)	2.3 (4.9)
高负荷	0.4 (0.3)	16.6 (1.9)	3.9 (0.3)	0.6 (2.5)	4.5 (7.7)

眼动指标	快速组	慢速组
句子总阅读时间(ms)	3013 (881)	4911 (1977)
平均注视时间(ms)	221 (23)	239 (20)
总注视次数	13.5 (3.6)	20.6 (8.3)
向前眼跳次数	9.3 (2.4)	13.6 (5.1)
回视眼跳次数	3.4 (1.1)	5.5 (3.1)
向前眼跳长度(字)	2.5 (0.6)	2.0 (0.6)
阅读速度(字/分)	458 (139)	299 (114)