Governments are increasingly adopting behavioral science techniques for changing individual behavior in pursuit of policy objectives. The types of “nudge” inter

The research presented in this article provides evidence that add‐on features sold to enhance a product can be more than just discretionary benefits. We argue that consumers draw inferences from the mere availability of add‐ons, which in turn lead to significant changes in the perceived utility of the base good itself. Specifically, we propose that the improvements supplied by add‐ons can be classified as either alignable or nonalignable and that they have opposing effects on evaluation. A set of four experiments with different product categories confirms this prediction. In addition, we show that the amount of product information available to consumers and expectations about product composition play important moderating roles. From a practical standpoint, these results highlight the need for firms to be mindful of the behavioral implications of making add‐ons readily available in the marketplace.

Psychology Department, School of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, USA. gbc@rci.rutgers.edu

Abstract Procedure invariance is a basic assumption of rational theories of choice, however, it has been shown to be violated: Different response modes, or task frames, sometimes reveal opposite preferences. The current study focused on selection and rejection task frames, involving a unique type of problem with enriched and impoverished options, which has previously led to conflicting findings and theoretical explanations: the compatibility hypothesis (Shafir, 1993) and the accentuation hypothesis (Wedell, 1997). We examined the role of task frame by distinguishing these 2 hypotheses and evaluating the information-processing basis of the choices. Experiments conducted online (Experiments 1 and 3) and in-lab (Experiment 4 with eye-tracking technique) revealed a difference between the 2 task frames in the choice data (i.e., the task-framing effect) as a function of the relative attractiveness of the options. Also, this task-framing effect was not influenced by imposed time constraints (Experiments 5 and 6) and was similarly evident with a more direct measure for the option attractiveness (obtained in Experiment 7). Experiment 2, conducted in a lab setting with verbal-protocol requirements, yielded no task-framing effect, suggesting that a requirement to verbalize reasons for choice minimizes accentuation. With this exception, the choice data are in agreement with the accentuation hypothesis, and the combined findings in choice, decision time, task confusion, and eye-tracking data provide evidence of a basis in cognitive effort rather than motivation, as Wedell proposed.

In this article, the authors examine how consumer choice between hedonic and utilitarian goods is influenced by the nature of the decision task. Building on research on elaboration, the authors propose that the relative salience of hedonic dimensions is greater when consumers decide which of several items to give up (forfeiture choices) than when they decide which item to acquire (acquisition choices). The resulting hypothesis that a hedonic item is relatively preferred over the same utilitarian item in forfeiture choices than in acquisition choices was supported in two choice experiments. In a subsequent experiment, these findings were extended to hypothetical choices in which the acquisition and forfeiture conditions were created by manipulating initial attribute-level reference states instead of ownership. Finally, consistent with the experimental findings, a field survey showed that, relative to market prices, owners of relatively hedonic cars value their vehicles more than do owners of relatively utilitarian cars. The authors discuss theoretical implications of these reference-dependent preference asymmetries and explore consequences for marketing managers and other decision makers.

中小学课外辅导又称为影子教育.分析韩国、日本与欧盟中小学课外 辅导可以发现,韩国课外辅导教育较为成熟;日本私塾讲师需要经过考试认证,学校教师也可以兼职课外辅导;欧盟的课外辅导起步较晚,欧盟成员国之间也有一定 差异,参加辅导的科目以数学、科学、语言为主.我国中小学课外辅导市场较为混乱,有待于进一步治理.国外中小学课外辅导的经验对我国课外辅导具有借鉴意 义:针对市场管理不到位的问题及时通过行业及管理部门加强监管;针对课外辅导热应改革招生制度,设置个性化课程满足学生所需,由政府出资进行放学后教育, 以及在学校开设选修语言课解决学生外语学习需求.

在服务定制情境下，企业可以采用两种不同方式让消费者定制服务包：呈现完整服务包让消费者从中删除不想要的业务（减法式）；呈现基本服务包让消费者选择添加所需附加业务（加法式）一本研究考察了这两种不同的选项呈现方式对消费者心理反应和选择行为的影响，分析了业务类型与呈现方式之间的交互作用，通过以移动通信服务为背景的实验发现：（1）相对于呈现基本服务包来让消费者进行“加法”定制来说，消费者在完整服务包基础上进行“减法”定制时会选择更多数量和更高总金额的附加服务；（2）选项呈现框架与业务类型之间具有显著的交互作用？相对于减法框架，在加法框架下，实用型业务会比享乐型业务更有可能被选择：而在减法框架下，享乐型业务会比实用型业务更有可能被选择；（3）在减法框架下，消费者的反应时间更长，感知到的决策乐趣更高，对决策结果更不易后悔一但是，两种框架下消费者的心理冲突和决策难度没有显著差别.基于上述研究发现，作者讨论了本研究的理论意义和应用价值，并围绕企业如何通过有效的服务业务组合和战略呈现来创造利润提出了管理建议。

[Abstract unavailable]

Consumers in the U. S. and Italy were asked to either build up from a consumable base product (pizza) by adding components or scale down from a fully-loaded product by subtracting components. In each country consumers ended up with significantly more ingredients, and a pizza for a higher cost, in the Scale Down Condition than in the Build Up Condition. Results are discussed in terms of the principle of "loss aversion" underlying phenomena such as "the endowment effect," marketing implications of this effect, and future research needs.

能源短缺是人类面临的重要课题，节约能源是人类需要采取的刻不容缓的行动。仅仅依赖金钱刺激很难解决能源浪费问题，而心理与行为科学可以发挥重要作用。本文梳理了应用行为决策的经典理论（如，安于现状偏差、决策双系统模型、参照点效应、框架效应和社会规范等）促进节能行为的研究成果，同时总结了诸如情绪、认知对象特点、信息呈现等影响个体节能行为的因素，最后从开展本土化研究、研究方式改进和拓展应对措施的角度对未来研究提出建议。希望本文能给心理学研究者一定的借鉴和启发，在节能管理领域做出更有价值的研究，以最终提高民众节能意识、增加民众节能行为。

Private tutoring has expanded and intensified in China. However, no government statistical data or other empirical studies fully capture its extent and characteristics. This paper analyses private tutoring received by students in Grades 1 12 as indicated by a nationwide representative survey entitled China Family Panel Studies. The paper employs a Hurdle model to examine determinants of demand for tutoring, focusing on factors related to students and their parents. The first step is concerned with the decision to receive tutoring or not; and the second step explores factors influencing expenditures on tutoring among those who decide to receive it.

进入新世纪，我们深刻感受到当今世界科学技术突飞猛进、知识经济浪潮涌动、国力竞争日趋激烈对教育的影响，我们深入分析了时代背景下教育改革和发展的形势，对学校进行了科学的定位，提出了个性鲜明、富有创新精神的办学理念和办学目标。学校全部的教育、教学、管理等工作

When people make choices, they both identify their options and research the unique details that comprise their options. Respectively, these two search behaviors are called alternative- and attribute-search. The literature treats these separate information search behaviors as a trade-off: Choosing to examine extant alternatives (alternative-search) means suffering the costs of not analyzing the details of alternatives (attribute-search), and vice versa. Here, we found that in choices people make for others, they search for more alternatives and more attributes than in choices people make for themselves. Moreover, we found that when people face a trade-off between searching for alternatives and attributes, people choosing for others will favor alternatives, whereas people choosing for themselves will favor attributes. Thus, we found that the pursuit of information is different when people choose for others (vs. themselves), suggesting a novel pivot to a range of areas in decision making where the alternative-attribute trade-off is ubiquitous.

The existing studies on self-other differences in decision-making still have many inconsistencies in the used tasks, the related findings and theoretical explanations, and lack of exploration of psychological mechanisms and neural basis of this phenomenon. Although some researchers have used psychological distance hypothesis to explain their research results, the manipulation of psychological distance in their experiment are still too simple to form a general theoretical model. In recent years, we have found in a series of studies that: The asymmetry in self-other differences in decision-making exist under gain and loss situations; Manipulation of psychological distance is more effective in inducing self–other differences in decision-making than manipulation of social distance and decision-makers’ roles; Self-esteem levels of decision-makers affect self-other differences in decision-making. Future studies should further explore the essence of psychological distance, the change in psychological distance caused by reversal of decision-makers’ role, as well as the brain mechanisms of self-other differences in decision-making.

The description invariance principle, which is one of the axioms of normative economic theory, requires that equivalent descriptions of a problem yield the same preference ordering. However, several studies have revealed that people often violate the invariance principle in real world decision-making. This action is known as preference-framing effects in decision-making. We reviewed new findings on the framing effect in the field of risky and intertemporal decision-making. We presented the framing effect research with a verbal as well as graphical frame. We also introduced compensatory models (e.g., prospect theory) and non-compensatory models (e.g., equate-to-differentiate model) as the psychological mechanism. This review encourages future researchers to extend the study of framing effects.

在管理咨询、代理投资等行业,甚至是日常生活中,人们都不可避免地需要为他人做决策.因此,探讨为他人决策者的决策规律逐渐成为研究热点.然而,现有研究多关注为他人决策者的个人心理机制,忽视了人际心理机制;多关注决策结果,忽略了决策体验.本项目拟探索(1)为他人决策者的个人与人际心理机制;(2)为他人决策者的决策体验的规律,以及这些规律如何受多维度心理机制的影响;(3)为他人决策者的个体差异如何影响多维度心理机制与决策体验.最终希望构建一个完整的关于为他人决策者的多维度心理机制与决策体验的理论模型.

本研究通过两个实验分别检验了被试在选择和放弃产品的过程中，以及在选择和高低卷入状态下对两种不同属性（实用性和享乐性）产品的偏好。结果表明被试在放弃条件下对实用性产品的偏好比选择条件下高；在选择过程中的高卷入状态下对实用性产品的偏好比低卷入状态下高。前者与国外相关文献的结论不一致。根据焦点控制理论，本文认为造成上述选择放弃条件下差异的原因是卷人程度的不同，即消费者可能在放弃条件下卷入度高，理性分析多，更加偏好实用性产品。

Most governments, at an official level, espouse the principles of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Among its statements is that education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Yet while the fa04ade of government education systems presents an image that instruction is free of charge, families across the world increasingly find it necessary to invest in the so-called shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring. The spread of shadow education, which is no longer confined to relatively prosperous families, has far-reaching implications for social inequalities and therefore social justice. It is a hidden form of privatisation behind the fa04ade of public education systems; and the fact that shadow education is seen by many families as unavoidable appears to be incompatible with the spirit of the Universal Declaration. The question then is whether the spirit of the Universal Declaration should be abandoned, or whether it should be protected—and, if so, how.

This research examines the influence of power on consumer decision strategies. It proposes that high power directs consumers' attention to options' positive features, making choosing a more preferred strategy than rejecting, whereas low power shifts consumers' focus to negative features, making rejecting a more preferred strategy than choosing. Two studies using different manipulations of power provide consistent support for this effect. The results also indicate that consumers in a state of high power are more satisfied with their choices when they adopt a choosing strategy than when they adopt a rejecting strategy, whereas the opposite is true for consumers in a state of low power. In addition, study 2 shows that the previous effects are reduced when consumers' sense of responsibility is made salient. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The authors examine the effects of using a subtractive versus an additive option-framing method on consumers' option choice decisions in three studies. The former option-framing method presents consumers with a fully loaded product and asks them to delete options they do not want. The latter presents them with a base model and asks them to add the options they do want. Combined, the studies support the managerial attractiveness of the subtractive versus the additive option-framing method. Consumers tend to choose more options with a higher total option price when they use subtractive versus additive option framing. This effect holds across different option price levels (Study 1) and product categories of varying price (Study 2). Moreover, this effect is magnified when subjects are asked to anticipate regret from their option choice decisions (Study 2). However, option framing has a different effect on the purchase likelihood of the product category itself, depending on the subject's initial interest in buying within the category. Although subtractive option framing offers strong advantages to managers when product commitment is high, it appears to demotivate category purchase when product commitment is low (Study 3). In addition, the three studies reveal several other findings about the attractiveness of subtractive versus additive option framing from the standpoint of consumers and managers. These findings, in turn, offer interesting public policy and future research implications.

Option framing effect is the phenomena that participants often accept more options when they are asked to delete undesired options from a full model (subtractive framing) than they do when they are instructed to add desired options to a base model (additive framing). Whether the same effect exists in different age groups is less well known. To explore the roles of age and purchase motivations on the option framing effect for automobiles purchases, this study adopted a 3 (age group: younger, middle-aged, vs. older) 2 (option framing: additive vs. subtractive) 2 (focus condition: information vs. emotion) mixed design. To manipulate purchase motivations, participants in the three age groups were instructed to focus on the ratio of utility and price of options (information-focus) or the extent of pleasure induced by the options (emotion-focus) when they made purchase decisions in two framing conditions. The results revealed similar option framing effect across all age groups in the information-focus condition regarding the total price paid for accepted options. In contrast, the framing effect was not found in the emotion-focus condition. In addition, older adults accepted more options and an overall higher price than younger and middle-aged adults in both focus conditions. This difference was more obvious in the emotion-focus condition than in the information-focus condition. Moreover, both the number of accepted options and the total accepted price of the younger group in the information-focus condition were higher than those in the emotion-focus condition, whereas the older and middle-aged groups accepted same number of options and price between two focus conditions. These results imply that purchase motivation is a moderator of the option framing effect and age characteristics linked with motivations must be considered in sales.

课外补习在一些国家已存在很长时间,俨然成为主流学校教育的"影子"。近20年来国外已经对课外补习做了大量的实证研究。课外补习的分布、规模、科目、强度影响因素与政府政策等方面都具有鲜明的特点,它对教育、经济和社会都产生了广泛的影响。这对我国的教育政策制定和教育研究具有一定的借鉴意义。

http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022103109002753

Abstract A growing stream of research is investigating how choices people make for themselves are different from choices people make for others. In this paper, I propose that these choices vary according to regulatory focus, such that people who make choices for themselves are prevention focused, whereas people who make choices for others are promotion focused. Drawing on regulatory focus theory, in particular work on errors of omission and commission, I hypothesize that people who make choices for others experience a reversal of the choice overload effect. In 6 studies, including a field study, I found that people who make choices for themselves are less satisfied after selecting among many options compared to few options, yet, people who make choices for others are more satisfied after selecting among many options compared to few options. Implications and suggestions for other differences in self-other decision making are discussed.

ABSTRACT Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the cross-cultural generalization of the effect of option choice framing on product option choices and other managerial and psychological variables. Design/methodology/approach – The experiment employs 124 Singaporean and 96 Thai working adults, who add options to a base model or delete options from a full model in a condominium purchase scenario. Hypotheses are derived from the different weights for monetary losses and utility gains from adding options vs utility losses and monetary gains from deleting options. Findings – For both Singaporeans and Thais, compared to additive framing, subtractive framing results in a higher number of options chosen, higher total option prices, higher expected product prices and higher perceived product prestige. For Thais, compared to additive framing, subtractive framing also results in lower perceived decision difficulty and shorter decision time. For Singaporeans, compared to additive framing, subtractive framing results in shorter decision time and higher perceived value. Research limitations/implications – The option choice task is a scenario, not a real-life choice task in which participants have to spend real money. Practical implications – Subtractive option choice framing should be used rather than additive option choice framing. However, in recession time, the use of subtractive framing may backfire because consumers perceive the product as more expensive than its counterpart presented under additive framing, thus lowering their purchase intention of the product. In addition, whenever marketers want consumers to perceive the starting price as low, the price of a base model should be emphasized as opposed to the price of a full model. Originality/value – This study examines an important issue – whether the superiority of subtractive framing over additive framing reported in past research is valid in other cultures that are very different from American and whether it is valid in another product category. The results qualify past findings that people give more weight to utility losses than monetary losses.

A previously unobserved pattern of choice behavior is predicted and corroborated. In line with the principle of compatibility, according to which the weighting of inputs is enhanced by their compatibility with output, the positive and negative dimensions of options (their pros and cons) are expected to loom larger when one is choosing and when one is rejecting, respectively. Subjects are presented with pairs of options, one of which—the enriched option—has more positive as well as more negative dimensions than does the other, impoverished , option. Because positive dimensions are weighted more heavily in choosing than in rejecting, and negative dimensions are weighted more heavily in rejecting than in choosing, the enriched option tends to be chosen and rejected relatively more often than the impoverished option. These findings are extended to nonbinary decision problems, and their implications for the rational theory of choice and for everyday decisions are discussed.

在目前实施素质教育和介导终身学习的信息化社会中，加强研究型课程的实施研究，对于学生素质发展具有重要意义。从研究型课程与基础型课程和拓展型课程来看，中小学课程改革必须走出研究型课程认识和实施中的三大误区，同时要设计三位一体的课程结构和课程功能的树模型，让研究型课程焕发出生命活力。

People can make decisions by choosing or by rejecting alternatives. This research shows that changing a task from choice to rejection makes people more likely to rely on deliberative processing, what we label the task-type effect. To demonstrate this effect, we use a set of established decision biases that can be attenuated under deliberative processing. We show that changing a task from choice to rejection makes people express more consistent preferences between safe and risky options in the Asian disease problem (study 1A) and in financial decision making (study 1B), even with real monetary consequences (study 1C). Further, switching a task from choice to rejection increases the quality of consideration sets in the context of hotel reviews (study 2) and leads to more rational decisions in the context of cell phone plan selection (study 3). Studies 4 and 5 tap into the process underlying the effect of task type. We demonstrate that a rejection task produces decisions similar to those observed in a choice task when decision makers are cognitively depleted (study 4) or encouraged to rely on their feelings (study 5). The findings provide insight into the effect of task type on deliberation and decision outcomes.

Careful attention to choice architecture promises to open up new possibilities for environmental protection possibilities that go well beyond, and that may be more effective than, the standard tools of economic incentives, mandates, and bans. How, for example, do consumers choose between environmentally-friendly products or services and alternatives that are potentially damaging to the environment but less expensive? The answer may well depend on the default rule. Indeed, green default rules may well be a more effective tool for altering outcomes than large economic incentives. The underlying reasons include the power of suggestion; inertia and procrastination; and loss aversion. If well-chosen, green defaults are likely to have large effects in reducing the economic and environmental harms associated with various products and activities. Such defaults may or may not be more expensive to consumers. In deciding whether to establish green defaults, choice architects should consider both consumer welfare and a wide range of other costs and benefits. Sometimes that assessment will argue strongly in favor of green defaults, particularly when both economic and environmental considerations point in their direction. But when choice architects lack relevant information, when interest-group maneuvering is a potential problem, and when externalities are not likely to be significant, active choosing, perhaps accompanied by various influences (including provision of relevant information), will usually be preferable to a green default.

As firms switch from defined-benefit plans to defined-contribution plans, employees bear more responsibility for making decisions about how much to save. The em

Preference can be inferred from direct choice between options or from a matching procedure in which the decision maker adjusts one option to match another. Studies of perferences between two-dimensional options (e.g., public policies, job applicants, benefit plans) show that the more prominent dimension looms larger in choice than in matching. Thus, choice is more lexicographic than matching. This finding is viewed as an instance of a general principle of compatibility: the weighting of input is enhanced by their compatibility with the output. To account for such effects, we develop a hierarchy of models in which the tradeoff between attributes is contingent on the nature of the response. The simplest theory of this type, called the contingent weighting model, is applied to the analysis of various compatibility effects, including the choice-matching discrepancy and the preference-reversal phenomenon. These results raise both conceptual and practical questions concerning the nature, the meaning and the assessment of preference.

对拓展课程应从两个维度认识:中小学教育的性质,是普通教育还是天才教育;中小学课程的管理,是地方本位还是学校本位。在课程形态上,拓展课程没有固定的模式,总是对应于基础课程或者常规课程或者主要学习领域而存在。各种类型的拓展课程对学生发展所起的作用也不相同。

以上海小学生家庭为样本,通过对城市小学生家庭课外教育课程的消费行为特征以及不同家庭在消费前的主要影响因素、消费中对课程类别和数量的选择、消费后对课程的感知满意度等方面的差异研究,发现在影响课程选择行为的关键因素中,费用最不重要,效果最重要,而且随母亲受教育程度的提高逐步提高;在课程的选择上,选文化课的最多,科普类的最少,近六成的小学生选择了2门或多门课程,而且母亲的受教育程度越高选课数量越多;消费以后,小学生对科普类满意度最高,对家教类最低,家长对运动类满意度最高,对家教类最低。

本文使用中国家庭追踪调查2012年数据(CFPS 2012),研究了我国义务教育阶段在校生的课外补习活动,发现来自较好家庭社会经济背景以及大中城市的学生更可能接受课外补习;重点校和学习成绩较好的学生参加课外补习的可能性也更高;课外补习对学生数学成绩有提高作用,但对语文成绩的提高作用不明显。由此,本文得出以下主要研究结论:我国义务教育阶段的课外补习活动扩大了城乡和不同阶层义务教育学生获得教育资源和教育结果的差距,影子教育因此成为城乡和阶层差距在代际间维持和传递的一个重要通道,影子教育的社会再生产功能削弱了当前政府在学校教育中的公平政策中的努力成效,对实现义务教育公平目标构成了严重挑战。面对挑战,政府需要提高学校教育服务质量,对影子教育进行适当管控,抑制影子教育的社会再生产功能并促进教育跨越代际效应功能的发挥。

消费者选购决策时依赖产品属性所传递的价值信号，价值传递过程受到消费者认知能力与认知动机的影响，而后形成属性偏好与产品选择。通过两个实验验证了选购决策时消费者对于产品的属性偏好及产品选择会受到属性的评估性的影响，并且卷入度会对该影响起调节作用。其中，实验一的研究结论表明，产品属性的评估性高低会影响消费者对产品属性的偏好及产品选择；实验二进一步验证了评估性对产品属性偏好、产品选择的影响会受到卷入度调节。

儿童参加课外培训班是我国教育市场上一道独特风景,属于典型的家庭教育消费决策行为。本文在家庭决策理论的基础上,首先,从文献资料收集、专家访谈和实际调查中,系统梳理总结了家庭儿童培训消费决策过程的影响因素,具体分为家庭（父母）、子女、培训企业、需求决策过程和区域环境5个方面,共19个因素;其次,运用系统工程学的解析结构模型法（ISM）将影响因素分为表层直接影响因素和深层根本影响因素,构建了反映各影响因素路径关系的结构模型;之后,运用层次分析法（AHP）和熵值法（Entropy）相结合的AHP-Entropy综合法来确定表层直接影响因素的权重值;最后,根据实际调查以儿童年龄为依据,将儿童参加培训的过程划分为四个阶段,发现不同阶段中父母和儿童两方面包含的5个因素的影响程度发生变化,并进一步运用AHP-Entropy综合法对这5个因素分阶段计算权重值并作比较分析。

中国新中间阶层有着显著的阶层特征,受益于文化资本的积累,但在进行文化再生产时却面临着诸多焦虑。影子教育以提升学生学习成绩为目标,对学生增加具体化的文化资本、客观化的文化资本和制度化的文化资本发挥着建设性作用,迎合了新中间阶层父母追求文化资本积累的心愿,成为中国新中间阶层进行文化再生产的一种现实性选择。在这一选择中,新中间阶层父母承受着不同教育价值理念的冲突,产生矛盾心理。

<p>在定制化情境下,同一服务项目的不同表述可以导致不同的决策结果,这被称为框架效应。文章基于调节匹配的视角,构建了目标框架与调节定向匹配对消费者旅游服务购买决策影响的分析框架,通过2（目标框架：选择vs.放弃）&times;2（调节定向：促进vs.防御）组间实验设计,验证了调节匹配对消费者服务购买意愿的影响机理以及认知流畅性与情绪体验的中介效应。研究结果表明：消费者旅游服务购买决策中存在目标框架效应;与选择性目标框架相比,消费者在放弃性目标框架中的服务购买意愿更高;当目标框架与调节定向达成匹配,促进定向的消费者在选择性目标框架中有更高的认知流畅性与情绪体验,进而产生更高的服务购买意愿;防御定向的消费者在放弃性目标框架中有更高的认知流畅性与情绪体验,进而产生更高的服务购买意愿。文章拓展了框架效应的研究领域,并为旅游企业开展定制化营销提供了理论与方法论指导。</p>