聋人阅读中的副中央凹视觉注意增强效应——来自消失文本的证据

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2018.00715

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

为适应失聪后的复杂环境, 聋人视觉注意资源的空间分布发生改变, 这对聋人的阅读加工产生了影响。本研究尝试提出“聋人阅读中的副中央凹视觉注意增强效应”, 并采用消失文本范式考察这一效应对聋人读者副中央凹及中央凹处词汇信息视觉编码效率的影响。结果发现, 在词n+1短暂呈现时, 聋生快速编码副中央凹处文本信息的加工效率与其生理年龄匹配组相近, 高于阅读能力匹配组; 但在词n短暂呈现时, 聋生快速编码中央凹处文本信息的加工效率落后于健听控制组, 其词汇通达和总阅读效率均受阻。综上所述, 本研究证实了聋人阅读中的副中央凹视觉注意增强效应, 表现为副中央凹加工效率增强, 但中央凹加工效率受阻。

关键词: 聋人, 副中央凹视觉注意增强效应, 消失文本, 眼动, 中文阅读

Abstract:

Visual information is essential to deaf people given their early auditory deprivation. Some researchers have proposed a perspective in which the distribution of deaf visual attention resource shifted from the central to the extrafoveal visual field. This study explores how this unique visual processing ability may influence reading in deaf people and proposes ‘the effect of parafoveal visual attention enhancement in deaf reading.’ We hypothesise that visual attention resources are reorganised due to the absence of auditory input for deaf people. This reorganisation increased distribution toward the extrafoveal field, but decreased it in the foveal field, resulting in poor reading efficiency.

A total of 29 severely to profoundly deaf students (DS) from a deaf school in Tianjin participated in the present study. Their hearing loss is ≥ 90 dB in the better ear. Participants are either born deaf or became deaf before three years old, and they use Chinese Sign Language (CSL) as their main communication mode. None of them received a cochlear implant. The age control group (AC) has 29 hearing middle school students, which indicated no significant difference in chronological age with DS. In addition, 29 hearing primary students comprised the reading-level control group (RC). The DS and RC were examined through a series of reading tests, including orthographic judgment task, reading fluency and reading comprehension, to match their reading levels. All participants read Chinese sentences for comprehension as their eye movements were tracked. A total of 48 pairs of target words (48 high frequency and 48 low frequency words) were embedded in two different sentence frames. All sentences consisted of seven or eight double-character words. These sentences were either presented normally or in a disappearing text paradigm that, as each word (n) was fixated, the word (n) or the next word (n + 1) remained visible only for a short period (40 ms) before disappearing. The paradigm was utilised to manipulate the display duration for the parafoveal word n + 1 (Experiment 1) or the foveal word N (Experiment 2) respectively, to compare the efficiency (speed) of encoding visual text information in sentence reading.

In Experiment 1, when word n + 1 was presented briefly (40 ms), the overall sentence reading times were prolonged only for reading-level control group, but no difference was observed between deaf students and age control group. The effect of word frequency on target words was normal for all three groups. By contrast, in Experiment 2, during which word n was presented briefly (40 ms), the overall sentence reading times were prolonged only for deaf students. For gaze duration, the effect of word frequency for target words disappeared for deaf students. Therefore, deaf students showed higher efficiency of encoding parafoveal text information than their reading-level controls in Experiment 1 and were equal to their age controls. However, in Experiment 2, deaf students showed lower efficiency in encoding foveal text information than those in the hearing controls.

In conclusion, the present study confirmed that deaf readers have enhanced parafoveal processing of linguistic information, but their foveal processing was hampered as a consequence. Thus, parafoveal visual attention was enhanced in deaf reading, which may be one of reasons for reading difficulty. Further research is necessary to explore this issue.

Key words: deaf, effect of parafoveal visual attention enhancement in deaf reading, disappearing text, eye movements, Chinese reading

中图分类号:

B842

刘璐, 闫国利. (2018). 聋人阅读中的副中央凹视觉注意增强效应——来自消失文本的证据. 心理学报, 50(7), 715-726.

LIU Lu, YAN Guoli. (2018). Effect of parafoveal visual attention enhancement in deaf reading: Evidence from disappearing text. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 50(7), 715-726.

图/表 8

参考文献 60

[1]	Bélanger, N.N . ( 2009). Reading is in the eye of the beholder: Eye movements and early word processes in deaf readers of French (Unpublished doctorial dissertation). McGill University.
[2]	Bélanger, N.N., &Rayner K. , ( 2015). What eye movements reveal about deaf readers. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24( 3), 220-226. doi: 10.1177/0963721414567527 URL pmid: 4651440
[3]	Bélanger N. N., Slattery T. J., Mayberry R. I., & Rayner K . ( 2012). Skilled deaf readers have an enhanced perceptual span in reading. Psychological Science, 23 7), 816-823. doi: 10.1177/0956797611435130 URL pmid: 22683830
[4]	Barr D. J., Levy R., Scheepers C., & Tily H. J . ( 2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68( 3), 255-278. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001 URL pmid: 24403724
[5]	Bates D. M., Maechler M., & Bolker B. ( 2011 ). LME4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes. R Package Version 0. 999375-39. Retrieved from
[6]	Bavelier D., Brozinsky C., Tomann A., Mitchell T., Neville H. J., & Liu G. Y . ( 2001). Impact of early deafness and early exposure to sign language on the cerebral organization for motion processing. Journal of Neuroscience, 21( 22), 8931-8942. doi: 10.1002/neu.1079 URL pmid: 11698604
[7]	Bavelier D., Dye M. W. G., & Hauser P. C . ( 2006). Do deaf individuals see better? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10( 11), 512-518. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2006.09.006 URL pmid: 2885708
[8]	Blythe, H.I . ( 2014). Developmental changes in eye movements and visual information encoding associated with learning to read. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23( 3), 201-207. doi: 10.1177/0963721414530145 URL
[9]	Blythe H. I., Häikiö T., Bertam R., Liversedge S. P., & Hyönä J . ( 2011). Reading disappearing text: Why do children refixate words? Vision Research, 51( 1), 84-92. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.10.003 URL pmid: 20934446
[10]	Blythe H. I., Liversedge S. P., Joseph H. S. S. L., White S. J., & Rayner K . ( 2009). Visual information capture during fixations in reading for children and adults. Vision Research, 49( 12), 1583-1591. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2009.03.015 URL pmid: 2692560
[11]	Bosse, M.L., &Valdois S. , ( 2009). Influence of the visual attention span on child reading performance: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Research in Reading, 32( 2), 230-253. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.01387.x URL
[12]	Casco C., Tressoldi P. E., & Dellantonio A . ( 1998). Visual selective attention and reading efficiency are related in children. Cortex, 34( 4), 531-546. doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70512-4 URL
[13]	Codina C., Buckley D., Port M., & Pascalis O . ( 2011). Deaf and hearing children: A comparison of peripheral vision development. Developmental Science, 14( 4), 725-737. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01017.x URL pmid: 21676093
[14]	Dowaliby, F., &Lang H. , ( 1999). Adjunct aids in instructional prose: A multimedia study with deaf college students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 4( 4), 270-282. doi: 10.1093/deafed/4.4.270 URL pmid: 15579894
[15]	Dye, M. W.G . ( 2016). Foveal processing under concurrent peripheral load in profoundly deaf adults. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 21( 2), 122-128. doi: 10.1093/deafed/env054 URL pmid: 26657078
[16]	Dye, M.W., &Bavelier D. , ( 2010). Attentional enhancements and deficits in deaf populations: An integrative review. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 28( 2), 181-192. doi: 10.3233/RNN-2010-0501 URL pmid: 20404407
[17]	Dye M. W. G., Hauser P. C., & Bavelier D . ( 2008). Visual skills and cross-modal plasticity in deaf readers: Possible implications for acquiring meaning from print. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1145, 71-82. doi: 10.1196/nyas.2008.1145.issue-1 URL
[18]	Dye M. W. G., Hauser P. C., & Bavelier D . ( 2009). Is visual selective attention in deaf individuals enhanced or deficient? The case of the useful field of view. PLoS One, 4( 5), e5640. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005640 URL pmid: 2680667
[19]	He, H.Z., &He L.Z . ( 2007). A research on deaf students’ eye-movement in discourse reading. Chinese Journal of Special Education,( 11), 31-35.
	[ 贺荟中, 贺利中 . ( 2007). 聋生篇章阅读过程的眼动研究. 中国特殊教育, ( 11), 31-35.]
[20]	Hyönä,J. ( 2012). Foveal and parafoveal processing during reading. In The Oxford handbook of eye movements . Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199539789.013.0045 URL
[21]	Kelly L. P. & Barac-Cikoja , D. , ( 2007) . The comprehension of skilled deaf readers: The roles of word recognition and other potentially critical aspects of competence. In K. Cain & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective (pp. 244-280). New York: Guilford Press.
[22]	Kliegl R., Masson M. E. J., & Richter E. M . ( 2010). A linear mixed model analysis of masked repetition priming. Visual Cognition, 18, 655-681. doi: 10.1080/13506280902986058 URL
[23]	Lane H., Pillard R. C., & Hedberg U . ( 2011). The people of the eye: Deaf ethnicity and ancestry. Oxford: Oxford University Press
[24]	Lei L., Pan J., Liu H. Y., McBride-Chang C., Li H., Zhang Y. P., .. Shu H . ( 2011). Developmental trajectories of reading development and impairment from ages 3 to 8 years in Chinese children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52( 2), 212-220. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02311.x URL pmid: 20854364
[25]	Liu, N.N . ( 2015). Revealing the time requirements of information extraction from words in foveal and parafoveal for reading in Chinese (Unpublished doctorial dissertation). Tianjin Normal University.
	[ 刘妮娜 . ( 2015). 中文阅读中的中央凹和副中央凹信息获取时间研究 (博士学位论文). 天津师范大学.]
[26]	Liu Z. F., Pan Y., Tong W., & Liu N . ( 2017). Effects of adults aging on word encoding in reading Chinese: Evidence from disappearing text. PeerJ, 5, e2897. doi: 10.7717/peerj.2897 URL pmid: 28123911
[27]	Liu Z. F., Wen S. H., & Zhang F . ( 2014). Analysis of age characteristics on visual coding in Chinese reading: evidence from eye movements. Psychological Development and Education, 30( 4), 411-419.
	[ 刘志方, 翁世华, 张锋 . ( 2014). 中文阅读中词汇视觉编码的年龄特征: 来自眼动研究的证据. 心理发展与教育, 30( 4), 411-419.]
[28]	Liu Z. F., Zhang Z. J., Pan Y., Tong W., & Su H . ( 2017). The characteristics of visual word encoding in preview and fixation frames during Chinese reading: Evidences from disappearing text. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 49( 7), 853-865.
	[ 刘志方, 张智君, 潘运, 仝文, 苏衡 . ( 2017). 中文阅读中预视阶段和注视阶段内词汇视觉编码的过程特点: 来自消失文本的证据. 心理学报, 49( 7), 853-865.]
[29]	Liu Z. F., Zhang Z. J., & Zhao Y. J . ( 2011). The units saccade targeting based on and words procession style in Chinese reading: Evidences from disappearing text. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 43( 6), 608-618.
	[ 刘志方, 张智君, 赵亚军 . ( 2011). 汉语阅读中眼跳目标选择单元以及词汇加工方式: 来自消失文本的实验证据. 心理学报, 43( 6), 608-618.] doi: 10.3724/24/SP.J.1041.2011.00608 URL
[30]	Liversedge S. P., Rayner K., White S. J., Vergilino-Perez D., Findlay J. M., & Kentridge R. W . ( 2004). Eye movements when reading disappearing text: Is there a gap effect in reading? Vision Research, 44( 10), 1013-1024. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2003.12.002 URL pmid: 15031094
[31]	Lork, W.H., &Song S. , ( 1991). Central and peripheral visual processing in hearing and nonhearing individuals. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 29( 5), 437-440. doi: 10.3758/BF03333964 URL
[32]	Marschark M. & Hauser, P. C. , ( 2008) . Cognitive underpinnings of learning by deaf and hard-of-hearing students. In Deaf cognition:Foundations and outcomes(pp. 3-24). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[33]	Marschark M., Morrison C., Lukomski J., Borgna G., & Convertino C . ( 2013). Are deaf students visual learners? Learning and Individual Differences, 25, 156-162. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2013.02.006 URL pmid: 23750095
[34]	Marschark M., Paivio A., Spencer L. J., Durkin A., Borgna G., Convertino C., & Machmer E . ( 2017). Don’t assume deaf students are visual learners. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 29( 1), 153-171. doi: 10.1007/s10882-016-9494-0 URL pmid: 28344430
[35]	Marschark M., Spencer L. J., Durkin A., Borgna G., Convertino C., Machmer E., .. Trani A . ( 2015). Understanding language, hearing status, and visual-spatial skills. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 20( 4), 310-330. doi: 10.1093/deafed/env025 URL pmid: 4836709
[36]	Mayberry R. I., del Giudice A. A., & Lieberman A. M . ( 2011). Reading achievement in relation to phonological coding and awareness in deaf readers: A meta-analysis. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16( 2), 164-188. doi: 10.1093/deafed/enq049 URL pmid: 21071623
[37]	Pan J., Shu H., Wang Y. L., & Yan M . ( 2015). Parafoveal activation of sign translation previews among deaf readers during the reading of Chinese sentences. Memory and Cognition, 43( 6), 964-972. doi: 10.3758/s13421-015-0511-9 URL pmid: 25707914
[38]	Proksch, J, &Bavelier D. , ( 2002). Changes in the spatial distribution of visual attention after early deafness. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14( 5), 687-701. doi: 10.1162/08989290260138591 URL pmid: 12167254
[39]	Qiao J. Z., Zhang L. L., & Yan G. L . ( 2011). Comparative research on perceptual span in Chinese reading between deaf college students and hearing college students. Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology, 17( 3), 249- 258, 264.
	[ 乔静芝, 张兰兰, 闫国利 . ( 2011). 聋人与健听大学生汉语阅读知觉广度的比较研究. 应用心理学, 17( 3), 249- 258, 264.]
[40]	Rayner, K. ( 1977). Visual attention in reading: Eye movements reflect cognitive processes. Memory and Cognition, 5( 4), 443-448. doi: 10.3758/BF03197383 URL pmid: 24203011
[41]	Rayner, K. . ( 1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124( 3), 372-422. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.85.3.618 URL pmid: 353867
[42]	Rayner, K. ( 2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62( 8), 1457-1506. doi: 10.1080/17470210902816461 URL
[43]	Rayner K., Liversedge S. P., & White S. J . ( 2006). Eye movements when reading disappearing text: The importance of the word to the right of fixation. Vision Research, 46( 3), 310-323. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2005.06.018 URL pmid: 16085229
[44]	Rayner K., Liversedge S. P., White S. J., & Vergilino-Perez D . ( 2003). Reading disappearing text: Cognitive control of eye movements. Psychological Science, 14( 4), 385-388. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.24483 URL
[45]	Rayner K., Murphy L. A., Henderson J. M., & Pollatsek A . ( 1989). Selective attentional dyslexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 6( 4), 357-378. doi: 10.1080/02643298908253288 URL
[46]	Rayner K., Schotter E. R., Masson M. E. J., Potter M. C., & Treiman R . ( 2016). So much to read, so little time: How do we read, and can speed reading help? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17( 1), 4-34. doi: 10.1177/1529100615623267 URL
[47]	Rayner K., Yang J. M., Castelhano M. S., & Liversedge S. P . ( 2011). Eye movements of older and younger readers when reading disappearing text. Psychology and Aging, 26( 1), 214-223. doi: 10.1037/a0021279 URL pmid: 21142374
[48]	Sladen D. P., Tharpe A. M., Ashmead D. H., Grantham D. W., & Chun M. M . ( 2005). Visual attention in deaf and normal hearing adults: Effects of stimulus compatibility. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48( 6), 1529-1537. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2005/106) URL
[49]	Song S., Su M. M., Kang C. P., Liu H. Y., Zhang Y. P., McBride-Chang C., .. Shu H . ( 2015). Tracing children's vocabulary development from preschool through the school-age years: An 8-year longitudinal study. Developmental Science, 18( 1), 119-131. doi: 10.1111/desc.12190 URL pmid: 24962559
[50]	Stevens, C. , &Neville H.J, . ( 2006). Neuroplasticity as a double-edged sword: Deaf enhancements and dyslexic deficits in motion processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18( 5), 701-714. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.701 URL pmid: 16768371
[51]	Venables,W.N., &Ripley B.D . ( 2002). Modern applied statistics with S (4th ed.). New York, NY: Springer.
[52]	Wang, T.W., &Yang J. , ( 2013). On the eye movement concerning the attentional capture by hearing-impaired persons and normal persons in different visual positions. Chinese Journal of Special Education,( 3), 30-36.
	[ 王庭蔚, 杨娟 . ( 2013). 不同视野位置下聋人与听力正常人注意捕获的眼动研究. 中国特殊教育, ( 3), 30-36.]
[53]	Xiang, M.Q., &Hu G.D . ( 2010). The visual attention of deaf individuals: Transferred from the center to the periphery. Chinese Journal of Special Education,( 3), 26-30.
	[ 项明强, 胡耿丹 . ( 2010). 聋人视觉注意的改变: 从中央转移到边缘视野. 中国特殊教育, ( 3), 26-30.] doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-3728.2010.03.006 URL
[54]	Yan G. L., Liu N. N., Liang F. F., Liu Z. F., & Bai X. J . ( 2015). The comparison of eye movements between Chinese children and adults when reading disappearing text. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 47( 3), 300-318.
	[ 闫国利, 刘妮娜, 梁菲菲, 刘志方, 白学军 . ( 2015). 中文读者词汇视觉信息获取速度的发展——来自消失文本的证据. 心理学报, 47( 3), 300-318.] doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2015.00300 URL
[55]	Yan G. L., Wu J. G., Hu Y. W., & Bai X. J . ( 2015). Review of Eye Movement Research Paradigms in Reading. Advances in Psychological Science, 18( 12), 1966-1976.
	[ 闫国利, 巫金根, 胡晏雯, 白学军 . ( 2010). 当前阅读的眼动研究范式述评. 心理科学进展, 18( 12), 1966-1976.]
[56]	Yan G. L., Xiong J. P., Zang C. L., Yu L. L., Cui L., & Bai X. J . ( 2013). Review of eye-movement measures in reading research. Advances in Psychological Science, 21( 4), 589-605.
	[ 闫国利, 熊建萍, 臧传丽, 余莉莉, 崔磊, 白学军 . ( 2013). 阅读研究中的主要眼动指标评述. 心理科学进展, 21( 4), 589-605.]
[57]	Yan M., Pan J. E., Bélanger N. N., & Shu H . ( 2015). Chinese deaf readers have early access to parafoveal semantics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41( 1), 254-261. doi: 10.1037/xlm0000035 URL pmid: 4286537
[58]	Zhang J., McBride-Chang C., Wong A. M. Y., Tardif T., Shu H., & Zhang Y. P . ( 2014). Longitudinal correlates of reading comprehension difficulties in Chinese children. Reading and Writing, 27( 3), 481-501. doi: 10.1007/s11145-013-9453-4 URL
[59]	Zhang, M.L., &Du X.X . ( 2011). A review of the researches into hearing-impaired students’ reading strategies. Chinese Journal of Special Education,( 7), 49-59.
	[ 张茂林, 杜晓新 . ( 2011). 听力障碍学生阅读策略研究概述. 中国特殊教育, ( 7), 49-59.] doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-3728.2011.07.010 URL
[60]	Zhang X. M., Zhu D. Q., Zhang H. T., Shen J. L., & Lin C. D . ( 2006). The effect of pupils' visual attention on reading efficiency. Educational Research and Experiment,( 5), 59-63.
	[ 张学民, 朱冬青, 张慧婷, 申继亮, 林崇德 . ( 2006). 小学生视觉注意能力对阅读效率的影响. 教育研究与实验, ( 5), 59-63.]

阅读测验项目	DS	RC
正字法意识(正确率%)	74.09 (13.00)	73.21 (8.41)
阅读流畅性(字/分)	302.76 (136.04)	314.44 (99.00)
阅读理解(分)	10.86 (2.82)	11.31 (2.34)

阅读测验项目	DS	RC
正字法意识(正确率%)	74.09 (13.00)	73.21 (8.41)
阅读流畅性(字/分)	302.76 (136.04)	314.44 (99.00)
阅读理解(分)	10.86 (2.82)	11.31 (2.34)

框架1	高频词(HF)	世界珍稀植物标本将于明天展出。
框架1	低频词(LF)	世界珍稀鸟类标本将于明天展出。
框架2	高频词(HF)	研究显示每年许多植物濒临灭绝。
框架2	低频词(LF)	研究显示每年许多鸟类濒临灭绝。

框架1	高频词(HF)	世界珍稀植物标本将于明天展出。
框架1	低频词(LF)	世界珍稀鸟类标本将于明天展出。
框架2	高频词(HF)	研究显示每年许多植物濒临灭绝。
框架2	低频词(LF)	研究显示每年许多鸟类濒临灭绝。

眼动指标 (整理分析)	聋生组		阅读能力匹配组		生理年龄匹配组
眼动指标 (整理分析)	40 ms消失	正常呈现	40 ms消失	正常呈现	40 ms消失	正常呈现
总阅读时间(ms)	3795 (1272)	3676 (1232)	4121 (1443)	3869 (1249)	3047 (862)	3065 (914)
跳读率(%)	35 (13)	31 (17)	25 (11)	17 (11)	28 (10)	25 (12)
回视次数(次)	3.08 (1.23)	2.8 (1.38)	2.57 (1.14)	2.62 (1.06)	2.52 (0.98)	2.54 (0.93)