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The influence of positive co-experience on teacher-student relationship: The mediating role of emotional bonding DING Yuting, ZHANG Chang, LI Ranran, DING Wenyu, ZHU Jing, LIU Wei, CHEN Ning Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (5): 726-739.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.00726 Abstract （7450）   HTML （575）    PDF（pc） （826KB）（10971）       Knowledge map    Save The teacher-student relationship is a key factor that contributes to educational activities and has hence long been considered an important topic in the field of educational practice and research. Previous studies have found that co-experience improves the development of interpersonal relationships. However, the question remains of whether positive co-experience has the same effect on the quality of teacher-student relationships. The current research aims to investigate the impact of positive co-experience on teacher-student relationships and the underlying mechanism. Building on previous studies, two main hypotheses are proposed: Firstly, that positive co-experience effectively promotes the development of teacher-student relationships (H1); secondly, that this effect is mediated by emotional bonding (H2). Three studies have been conducted to test these hypotheses (H1 & H2). In study 1, a total of 1, 273 students were invited to complete a questionnaire exploring aspects of positive co-experience, positive emotional bonding, teacher-student relationships, and a self-assessment of academic performance. In study 2, all students in a middle school in Shanghai were enrolled as research subjects. Taking each class as a unit, we randomly divided students into three groups. A mixed experimental design of 2 (time: pre-test vs. post-test) × 3 (positive co-experience type: sharing and recall group vs. simple recall group vs. normal group) was adopted. In the pre-test, all subjects in three groups were asked to complete the questionnaires. The students and their teachers would then take part in a sports festival, which was designed to foster positive co-experience within teacher-student relationships. The researchers took photos during this process and made a photo album for the enrolled students and teachers. In the post-test, all three groups were required to complete the questionnaire: students in the “sharing and recall group” were required to complete the questionnaire after reviewing the album of their shared experience with their teachers. “the simple recall group” was asked to complete the questionnaire after reviewing the album with their teachers without sharing experience with their teachers; and the normal group, as a control, completed the questionnaire directly. In study 3, 152 middle school students were invited to participate. We divided them into four groups and conducted a mixed experimental design grid with dimensions of 4 (positive co-experience type: recall vs. imagination vs. example vs. control) × 2 (teacher category: specific teacher vs. group teacher). The four groups of subjects were then required to complete tasks assessing the psychological distance and positive emotional bonding between themselves, a specific teacher, and the group teacher, respectively. They were then graded for “the vignette task”. In conclusion, the results of these studies congruently indicate that positive co-experience has a stable facilitatory effect on teacher-student relationships, and further, that positive emotional bonding plays a mediating role in the relationship between positive co-experience and teacher-student relationships. Further, sharing can promote the level of positive emotional bonding between teachers and students, and the positive co-experience of imagination, recall, and example can improve the level of positive emotional bonding between teenage students and their teachers. We also found that the positive aspect of the teacher-student relationship can be transferred to the group relationship between teachers and students. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Associations between empathy and negative affect: Effect of emotion regulation GUO Xiaodong, ZHENG Hong, RUAN Dun, HU Dingding, WANG Yi, WANG Yanyu, Raymond C. K. CHAN Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (6): 892-904.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.00892 Abstract （8872）   HTML （759）    PDF（pc） （1267KB）（10935）       Knowledge map    Save Empathy refers to understanding, inferring and sharing others’ emotional states, which can be divided into affective and cognitive components. Although empathy contributes to prosocial behaviors and harmonious interpersonal relationships, it also increases an individual’s negative emotional experiences and affect distress. Emotion regulation, the psychological process of managing one’s own emotions, has been found to be closely associated with empathy. Cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression are two commonly used strategies to regulate emotions, of which cognitive reappraisal is effective in reducing negative emotional experiences while expressive suppression is usually correlated with more affective distress. However, the roles of emotion regulation strategies in the empathic response are still unclear. We conducted two studies to investigate the roles of emotion regulation on the negative affect related to empathy using self-report questionnaires and experimental task respectively. Study 1 administered the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE), the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) to 442 college students. The moderating effects of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression on the association between empathy and negative affect were examined separately. Study 2 adopted the Chinese version of the Empathic Accuracy Task (EAT) to further examine the effect of emotion regulation (i.e. cognitive reappraisal) on cognitive empathy and affective responses. The EAT requires participants to continuously rate targets’ emotional valence in video clips as a second person and rate emotional valence and arousal of both targets and themselves after each video. Seventy-five participants (33 for experiment 1 and 42 for experiment 2) were recruited to perform the EAT under two conditions, i.e., naturally viewing without any instructions and applying cognitive reappraisal while viewing the scenarios. Paired sample t tests and repeated-measure ANOVA were performed to examine the effect of cognitive reappraisal on task performance. Findings from Study 1 showed that affective empathy was significantly correlated with higher levels of anxiety and stress, while empathic concern was correlated with less anxiety, stress and depression. However, when participants endorsed cognitive reappraisal more frequently, such positive association between affective empathy and stress was reduced, while the negative association between empathic concern and anxiety was strengthened. Cognitive empathy was significantly correlated with reduced depression. Expressive suppression strengthened the negative association between cognitive empathy and depression. Moreover, negative correlations between cognitive empathy and anxiety as well as stress emerged for participants endorsing cognitive reappraisal more frequently. Findings from Study 2 showed that task performances of the EAT were significantly improved when participants endorsed cognitive reappraisal strategy compared to the condition of naturally viewing. Specifically, under the cognitive reappraisal condition participants scored higher empathic accuracy, experienced less negative affect in reaction to others’ affect distress, and experienced more positive affect in reaction to others’ positive emotions. Taken together, the findings from these two studies suggested that both cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression play a protective role in the associations between empathy and negative affect, and the endorsement of cognitive reappraisal would improve task performance on both cognitive and affective empathy. Our findings shed light on the psychological mechanisms of empathy and provide new approach for improving individuals’ social cognitive ability, especially for early intervention in clinical and subclinical populations. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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“Neijuan” in China: The psychological concept and its characteristic dimensions ZHANG Wen, PAN Chao, YAO Shiming, ZHU Jiajia, LING Dong, YANG Hanchun, XU Jingsha, MU Yan Acta Psychologica Sinica    2024, 56 (1): 107-123.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00107 Abstract （5912）   HTML （454）    PDF（pc） （745KB）（8975）       Knowledge map    Save With the deepening and spread of reform and opening-up, China has undergone rapid and unprecedented economic growth and societal transformations over the past few decades. Accumulating evidence has revealed the impacts of sociocultural changes on Chinese mental health. Since 2020, a popular buzzword, “Neijuan” (involution), has garnered significant attention and discussion in daily life. Neijuan could be traced back to agricultural involution, which refers to a process of inward over-elaboration in agricultural development. This concept was first identified by the anthropologist Geertz (1963), who observed that population growth failed to enhance productivity growth and economic development. Despite Neijuan's growing attention, it is still unclear about the connotation and characteristic dimensions of this social phenomenon. Cultural psychology provides a solid theoretical and empirical basis for exploring how social and cultural changes affect individuals’ psychological states and behaviors. In this context, we propose that Neijuan is a multidimensional psychological concept of great significance in this new era, closely connected to cultural changes in China’s rapid development and growth. To explore the psychological concept of Neijuan, Study 1 employed a grounded theory approach through in-depth interviews to clarify the intricate psychological components of Neijuan. Based on the results of Study 1, Studies 2 and 3 developed a measurement tool to validate the multiple characteristic dimensions of Neijuan in Chinese culture, utilizing exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The findings suggested that Neijuan comprises four dimensions: resource scarcity, social norm, psychological pressure, and competition. Subsequently, Study 4 used Neijuan scenario-based task in the university and workplace environments to assess participants’ behavioral tendencies related to Neijuan and examined the relationship between individuals’ perceptions of Neijuan and their actual behaviors. Results revealed that individuals with higher levels of perceived Nejuan exhibited a greater tendency to engage in behaviors associated with Neijuan. In summary, the series of studies sought to explore the psychological concept and multiple characteristic dimensions of Neijuan, which provides a theoretical and empirical basis for understanding this significant phenomenon in the contemporary era. The current research also offers an effective measurement tool to assess individuals’ perception of Neijuan and enlightens future research on the effect of Neijuan on psychological maladjustment and non-benign competition behaviors related to Neijuan. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of cumulative risk related to family adversity on social adjustment among left-behind children in China: The mediating role of stress and the moderating role of psychosocial resources FAN Xing-hua, FANG Xiao-yi, ZHAO Xian, CHEN Feng-ju Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (8): 1270-1284.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01270 Abstract （5342）   HTML （508）    PDF（pc） （838KB）（7458）       Knowledge map    Save In China, left-behind children (LBC) refer to children (under the age of 16) who remain at rural regions while both of their parents migrate to urban area for work, or one of their parents migrates for work and the other has limited capacity to care for their children. Relative to non-left-behind children (NLBC), LBC are exposed to various risk factors related to family, such as lack of parental care and insufficient family support, which could increase their vulnerability to psychological and behavioral problems. Based on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory and the cumulative risk (CR) model, this study used two-wave data (T1 and T2) and examined the association between cumulative risk related to family adversity (T1) and social adjustment outcomes (T1/T2), in which stress (T1/T2) is a mediator, and examined the moderating role of psychosocial resources (T1) in this association. A two-wave longitudinal household surveys were conducted among six hundred fifty-one families of rural children. A total of 285 children whose both parents migrated for work throughout the study waves were categorized as the LBC group, while 366 children who reported living with their parents at least one of waves were categorized as the control group. All measures in the surveys showed good reliability, including family adversity, stress, psychosocial resources (i.e., psychological capital and social support) and social adjustment (i.e., subjective well-being, depression, positive behaviors and problem behaviors). Data analyses were performed using SPSS 24.0 and AMOS 22.0. Results showed that: (1) LBC’s T1 cumulative risk related to family adversity was linearly associated with their T1/T2 social adjustment; (2) After controlling for gender and age, LBC’s T1 cumulative risk related to family adversity was negatively associated with T1 social adjustment (β = −0.42, p < 0.001), and T1 stress mediated this association. The association between stress and social adjustment was moderated by psychosocial resources, with a higher level of psychosocial resources associated with a smaller mediating effect of stress. (3) After controlling for gender and age, T1 stress and T1 social adjustment, T1 cumulative risk related to family adversity were negatively associated with T2 social adjustment (β = −0.23, p < 0.001), and T2 stress mediated this relationship. T1 psychosocial resources moderated the association of T1 cumulative risk related to family adversity on both T2 social adjustment and T2 stress. This showed that with the level of T1 psychosocial resources increasing, the main effect of T1 cumulative risk related to family adversity on T2 social adjustment and the mediation effect of T2 stress decreased and became statistically non-significant. The findings of this study demonstrate the detrimental impact of cumulative risk related to family adversity on social adjustment among LBC, as well as the mediating role of stress and the moderating role of psychosocial resources. Overall, these findings suggest that family risk factors are proximal factors for LBC’s social maladjustment, and future intervention should attend to psychosocial resource promotion. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Personality subtypes of depressive disorders and their functional connectivity basis LI Yu, WEI Dongtao, QIU Jiang Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (5): 740-751.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.00740 Abstract （4975）   HTML （223）    PDF（pc） （2489KB）（7415）       Knowledge map    Save Heterogeneity among mental health issues has always attracted considerable attention, thereby restricting research on mental health and cognitive neuroscience. Additionally, the person-centred approach to personality research, which emphasizes population heterogeneity, has received more attention. On the other hand, the heterogeneity among depressive patients has been a problem that cannot be ignored (most studies ignored the actual situation and directly assumed sample homogeneity). A large number of empirical studies have provided evidence that isolated personality traits are often associated with depression. Only a few studies have considered the probable effect from a taxonomy perspective. Moreover, the neural mechanisms of personality types in depression remain unclear. This study aimed to reveal different personality subtypes of depressive disorders and elucidate subtypes from the perspective of resting-state functional connectivity. Personality and resting-state functional imaging data of 135 depressive patients and 133 controls were collected. First, combined with “depression diagnosis”, the personality types in depressive patients and controls were identified through functional random forest. Specifically, neuroticism and extraversion (input features) were fitted with the diagnosis of depression by a random forest model. The random seeds were set to 1234, and 500 decision trees were fitted. The performance of the model was evaluated by tenfold cross-validation. Subsequently, the random forest algorithm generated a proximity matrix that represented the similarity between paired participants. Then, based on the proximity matrix, community detection clustering analysis was conducted on depressive patients and controls, and personality types associated with depression diagnosis were obtained. Finally, we selected nodes of the subcortical network as regions of interest according to the power-264 template and calculated the functional connectivity map of the region of interest to the whole brain. Based on the functional connectivity map, the differences in resting-state functional connectivity between the main types were compared. Personality and resting-state functional imaging data of 159 depressive patients and 156 controls were collected. First, combined with “depression diagnosis”, the personality types in depressive patients and controls were identified through functional random forest. Specifically, neuroticism and extraversion (input features) were fitted with the diagnosis of depression by a random forest model. The random seeds were set to 1234, and 500 decision trees were fitted. The performance of the model was evaluated by tenfold cross-validation. Subsequently, the random forest algorithm generated a proximity matrix that represented the similarity between paired participants. Then, based on the proximity matrix, community detection clustering analysis was conducted on depressive patients and controls, and personality types associated with depression diagnosis were obtained. Finally, we selected the amygdala, hippocampus, insula (AAL atlas) and limbic network, default network, and control network (Schaefer-Yeo template) as regions of interest and calculated the functional connectivity of the subcortical regions to the networks. ANOVA was used to compare resting-state functional connectivity between the personality types. The results showed the following. (1) Depression was more common among individuals with high neuroticism and low extraversion tendencies, but there were also individuals with low neuroticism and high extraversion tendencies. The controls were more likely to be individuals with low neuroticism and high extraversion. (2) The results of resting-state functional connectivity showed no significant difference between depression and controls. (3) The functional connectivity strength of the left amygdala/insula-limbic network was significantly different across personality subtypes. In summary, the personality subtypes of depression identified by person-centred perspectives are more in line with reality and individual cognitive patterns, and they have potential clinical adaptive value. The findings of this study enhance the understanding of heterogeneity among depressive disorders. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Accept or change your fate: Exploring the Golem effect and underdog effect of underdog expectations MA Jun, ZHU Mengting Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (6): 1029-1048.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01029 Abstract （5975）   HTML （381）    PDF（pc） （1227KB）（7211）       Knowledge map    Save In organisations, some employees are heralded as rising stars, whilst others are considered underdogs with no prospects. Scholars define individuals’ perceptions that others view them as unlikely to succeed as underdog expectation. The traditional view indicates that when individuals experience underdog expectations from others, they will reduce their subsequent performance through a sense of self-efficacy. This phenomenon, in which one’s performance is manipulated by someone else’s negative assessment, is also known as the Golem effect. Indeed, some studies have suggested that underdog expectations can enhance their desire to prove others wrong to improve performance. However, such studies have only focused on the influence of underdog expectations on employee behavior as social-situation cues but have disregarded its interaction with individuals’ traits. By integrating the preceding arguments, we proposed a comprehensive model based on trait activation theory, which examines the Golem and underdog effects. Specifically, under the moderating effect of underdog expectations, employees with fixed mindsets have a negative impact on subsequent task performance through feedback- avoiding behavior. Meanwhile, employees with growth mindsets have a positive impact on subsequent task performance by proving others wrong. The task context (task focus vs. future focus) plays a role in inhibiting and amplifying the two interactions. This study aimed to explore the reasons why employees who are trapped in underdog expectations become a Golem manipulated by fate and how to counter strike and become an underdog in the workplace. This study constructed a three-term interaction model of nested moderated mediation model. Three studies were designed to explore the internal and intervention mechanisms of the Golem and underdog effects activated by underdog expectations. In the first study, the existence of three interactions was initially examined through a multi-source, multi-point questionnaire of 341 employees. To test the stability of the three interactions and the extensibility of the research conclusions in different groups, a second multi-source and multi-time questionnaire survey involving 650 employees and a field study based on a quasi-experiment were designed for retesting. Regression analysis, bootstrap method and Johnson−Neyman (J−N) technology were used to analyse the questionnaire data to examine the moderated mediation effects of the three-term interaction. T-tests were used to analyse data from the field study. The analyses of the study showed the following results. (1) The interaction between underdog expectations and fixed mindsets positively affects subsequent task performance through feedback-avoiding behavior. (2) The interaction between underdog expectations and growth mindsets positively affects subsequent task performance through the desire to prove others wrong. (3) Lastly, task focus reduces the positive moderating effect of underdog expectations on fixed mindsets, and future focus strengthens the positive moderating effect of underdog expectations on growth mindsets. Findings of our research have several theoretical and practical implications. This study revealed the causes of the Golem and underdog effects, thereby enriching and expanding the research on implicit theory. It showed that fixed and growth mindsets have different paths in processing negative information, which is helpful in integrating the research on underdog and topdog employees. It also provided a theoretical explanation and transformation idea for the emergence and popularity of the depressed culture represented by the lie down and Buddha-like mindsets. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The cognitive mechanism of reducing procrastination by emotion regulation: The mediation role of task aversiveness TONG Tingting, BAI Youling, FENG Tingyong Acta Psychologica Sinica    2024, 56 (4): 458-468.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00458 Abstract （4262）   HTML （152）    PDF（pc） （554KB）（7146）       Knowledge map    Save Previous research has shown that using adaptive emotion-regulation strategies, particularly cognitive reappraisal, can help reduce procrastination. However, the precise cognitive mechanisms underlying the impact of emotion regulation on procrastination remain unclear. The temporal decision model of procrastination posits that procrastination is primarily influenced by the tradeoff between task aversiveness and outcome utility. When task aversiveness surpasses outcome utility, individuals are more likely to procrastinate, whereas when outcome utility outweighs task aversiveness, immediate action is more probable. Consequently, emotion regulation could reduce procrastination by diminishing task aversiveness or by improving outcome utility. To investigate this issue, based on Gross’s emotion regulation theory and the temporal decision model of procrastination, this research focuses on individuals exhibiting high levels of procrastination (as measured by the General Procrastination Scale, with scores above 67.5). These participants were divided into two groups: the positive reappraisal group (consisting of 34 individuals) and the ineffective strategy group (also consisting of 34 individuals). Over a period of 7 days, the two groups were longitudinally tracked through empirical sampling, resulting in a total of 14 data collection points. The results showed that: (1) There was no notable disparity between the two groups in task executive willingness during the pre-test, while the positive reappraisal group demonstrated a significantly higher task executive willingness compared to the ineffective strategy group in the post-test, indicating that positive reappraisal significantly enhanced individuals’ task executive willingness. (2) No significant difference was observed in task aversiveness between the two groups during the pre-test, while the positive reappraisal group exhibited noticeably lower levels of task aversiveness compared to the ineffective strategy group in the post-test. Additionally, initial outcome utility levels did not differ significantly between the two groups, while the positive reappraisal group demonstrated significantly higher outcome utility compared to the ineffective strategy group in the post-test. (3) Mediation analysis indicated that the reduction of task aversiveness mediated the influence of emotion regulation on the degree of improvement in procrastination (that is, the increase in task executive willingness), whereas the increase of outcome utility did not mediate the impact of emotion regulation on the degree of improvement in procrastination (that is, the increase in task executive willingness). These findings suggest that emotion regulation mainly enhance individuals’ task executive willingness by diminishing task aversiveness, thereby reducing procrastination behavior. This offers a strong theoretical foundation for interventions targeting procrastination through the lens of emotional regulation. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of endogenous spatial cue validity on audiovisual integration in older adults GAO Yulin, TANG Xiaoyu, LIU Siyu, WANG Aijun, ZHANG Ming Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (5): 671-684.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.00671 Abstract （5118）   HTML （208）    PDF（pc） （906KB）（6899）       Knowledge map    Save Audiovisual integration is the integration of visual and auditory information into a unified, coherent and stable perceptual process. Although endogenous spatial attention can promote audiovisual integration in youth, studies have found differences in endogenous spatial attention between older adults and youth. It is unclear how endogenous spatial attention affects audiovisual integration in older adults and how audiovisual integration differs between older adults and young adults under endogenous spatial attention conditions. In this study, using the endogenous cue-target paradigm, three experiments investigated how endogenous spatial attention affects the audiovisual integration of elderly individuals under 50% (Experiment 1), 70% (Experiment 2), and 90% (Experiment 3) conditions. A mixed 2 (participant type: elderly vs. young) × 2 (cue type: valid cue vs. invalid cue) × 3 (target stimulus type: A vs. V vs. AV) experimental design was used. The visual stimulus was a 2° × 2° red (RGB: 234, 86, 97) and yellow (RGB: 247, 200, 125) intersecting meta−pattern, the auditory stimulus was a 1600 Hz, 60 dB sinusoidal tone presented by ear headphones, and the audiovisual stimulus was visual and auditory stimuli presented simultaneously on the same side. The gaze screen was presented for 500 ms, followed by a cue screen for 200 ms. The cue was an arrow pointing left or right. After a time interval of 600 ms, the target stimulus (A vs. V vs. AV) was presented in a box on the left or right side for 100 ms. Before the experiment, participants were informed that the cue validity was 50% for Experiment 1, 70% for Experiment 2, and 90% for Experiment 3 and were asked to judge the orientation of the target stimulus and to press the (N/M) key quickly and accurately. From the reaction time results, it is clear that the reaction time of elderly people is significantly slower than that of younger people. From the relative amount of multisensory response enhancement (rMRE) and race model results, we can see that (1) audiovisual integration was weaker in older adults than in younger adults regardless of cue validity; (2) at 50% cue validity (Experiment 1), audiovisual integration in the valid cue condition was not significantly different from that in the invalid cue condition for both older and younger adults; (3) at 70% cue validity (Experiment 2), audiovisual integration in the valid cue condition was not significantly different from that in the invalid cue condition for older adults, and audiovisual integration in the valid cue condition was significantly higher than that in the invalid cue condition for younger adults; and (4) at 90% cue validity (Experiment 3), audiovisual integration in the valid cue condition was significantly higher than that in the invalid cue condition for both older and younger adults. Endogenous spatial attention had different moderating effects on audiovisual integration in older adults under different cue validity conditions and could promote audiovisual integration in older adults under high cue validity conditions. The findings further support the spatial uncertainty hypothesis and deepen the understanding of the interaction between endogenous attention and audiovisual integration. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of reward prediction errors on temporal order and source memory ZHANG Hongchi, CHENG Xuan, MAO Weibin Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (7): 1049-1062.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01049 Abstract （5025）   HTML （282）    PDF（pc） （5471KB）（6329）       Knowledge map    Save The human brain automatically segments continuous experiences into discrete events to better remember ongoing experiences in daily life. This automatic process is known as event segmentation. The time points between different events are called event boundaries—they indicate when one event ends, and another begins. Studies have shown that the event boundaries may enhance the item-context source memory of information at the boundaries but impair temporal order memory in across-event information. Notably, previous studies mainly focused on the boundaries caused by changes in the external environment and rarely paid attention to the subjective boundaries caused by changes in an individual’s internal psychological context. Moreover, Rouhani et al. (2020) first confirmed that reward prediction errors (RPE) could be used as event boundaries to influence memory. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the RPE event boundary reduces the temporal order memory in across-event information. However, the effects of the RPE event boundary on temporal order and source memory and whether the mnemonic trade-off effect exists are not clear. The neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the effects of event boundaries on memory require further examination. This study used behavioral and event-related potentials (ERP) technology in three experiments to explore the effect of RPE event boundaries on temporal order and source memory, respectively, based on behavioral and neurophysiological mechanisms. Experiment 1 used a neutral scene picture matching value as materials. The value of successive pictures fluctuates around an average value to form an event, and event boundaries denote when there is a significant shift in the value, which is the reward prediction error. The participants were required to complete two memory tests: a temporal order memory test and a source memory test. The source memory test was presented with a neutral scene picture, and participants were asked to choose a value that matched the learning stage from the two alternatives. We aimed to explore the effect of the RPE event boundary on temporal order and source memory. However, no mnemonic trade-off effect was observed. Therefore, whether other factors might influence the mnemonic trade-off effect that exists is not clear. In Experiment 2, RPE was divided into high and low strength. We aimed to explore the effects of different RPE strengths on temporal order and source memory. After we obtained stable results, in Experiment 3, we used ERP technology to explore the N400 and P600 effects under different conditions at the memory retrieval stage in the high RPE condition to examine the detailed mechanism of the effect of event boundary on memory. The behavioral results showed that the RPE event boundary enhanced only the neutral scene picture-value source memory of information at the boundaries in Experiment 1. High and low RPE event boundaries affect temporal order and source memory differently. The high RPE event boundary enhanced the neutral scene picture-value source memory of information at the boundaries. Further it reduced the temporal order memory of information across-events, which caused the mnemonic trade-off effect between temporal order and source memory in Experiment 2. The ERP results showed that compared to the within-event/non-boundary condition, correctly retrieving information of temporal order and source memory in the across-event/boundary condition induced a larger N400 (350−550ms) effect but did not induce a larger P600 (600−1000ms) effect in Experiment 3. These two memory tests were activated in different brain regions. The temporal order memory in the across-events condition was mainly activated in the anterior region, while the source memory boundary condition was mainly activated in the parietal region. This study can be summarized as follows. The segmentation strength of the event boundary is an important factor affecting the mnemonic trade-off effect between temporal order and source memory. The mnemonic trade-off effect only occurs when the representation difference between events is sufficiently vast, and the segmentation strength of the boundary is sufficiently high. Furthermore, the N400 component is an important index that reflects the integration and segmentation of episodic memory using event boundaries. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Undervaluing the advantages of displaying skills in front of an expert QIU Tian, JIANG Nan, LU Jingyi Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (5): 766-780.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.00766 Abstract （4308）   HTML （244）    PDF（pc） （862KB）（6000）       Knowledge map    Save Job candidates and competitors aim to earn admission or high ratings. People tend to avoid displaying their skills in front of an expert due to the prediction that they will be rated unfavorably because the expert can accurately evaluate their level of skill. However, is this prediction accurate? The present research proposes a misprediction: candidates will undervalue the advantages of showing skills in front of an expert. This is because evaluators partially base their evaluations on the pride elicited by alluding to their expertise, whereas candidates base their predictions on whether their competence will be accurately evaluated but neglect evaluators’ pride. Eight studies (N = 1, 888) demonstrated the proposed misprediction and tested its underlying mechanism. In Study 1, we assigned the participants to the candidate or the evaluator condition. The candidates made an incentive-compatible prediction on how they would be more likely to be admitted by displaying their skills in front of an expert or a non-expert. The evaluators admitted one between a candidate displaying skills in the evaluators’ area of expertise and a candidate displaying skills outside the evaluators’ area of expertise. The results showed that the evaluators preferred the candidate who showcased skills in the evaluators’ area of expertise. However, the candidates avoided doing so, which reduced their chances of admission. Studies 2 and 3 replicated the results in Study 1 with different competition forms (promotion or elimination) and in the case where candidates were assigned to display skills in or outside the evaluators’ area of expertise. These studies ruled out two alternative explanations that the evaluators preferred the candidate who showcased skills in the evaluators’ area of expertise solely because they were similar to the candidate or could easily evaluate the candidate. Studies 4 and 5 manipulated the candidates’ motivation to win the competition and their level of competence, respectively, to test whether they avoided displaying skills in front of experts due to the concern that their competence could be evaluated accurately by experts. The results indicated that the candidates showed a stronger misprediction and were less likely to showcase skills in front of experts when they highly (vs. less) desired to win the competition or had a lower (vs. moderate and higher) competence. Study 6 prompted the candidates to empathize with evaluators. We asked the candidates to think about their feelings when others made references to their expertise. As a result, the candidates were aware of their pride and made a more accurate prediction. Study 7 manipulated the evaluators’ pride to test whether they preferred the candidate who displayed skills in the evaluators’ area of expertise because that they felt pride when their expertise was referred to. The results revealed that the evaluators with lower (vs. higher) pride were less likely to admit the candidates who displayed skills in the evaluators’ area of expertise. In Study 8, we recorded the participants’ real-time thoughts during their decision making. The results again showed that the candidates focused on their competence during their decision-making process, whereas the evaluators’ preferences were affected by their pride. In addition, the real-time thoughts led to the underestimation about the benefits of displaying skills in front of an expert. We reveal that people fail to accurately predict the effect of a self-presentation strategy. Candidates undervalue the strategy of displaying skills in front of experts due to the empathy gap that they neglect the pride experienced by experts. Consequently, candidates mistakenly avoid displaying skills in front of experts and thus miss the chance to earn admission. Besides, we offer a feasible approach to reduce such a bias. Our findings encourage candidates to empathize with evaluators and strategically perform to experts. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Give a man a fish or teach him to fish? Differences in donor behavior between high and low social classes SUN Qingzhou, HUANG Jingru, YU Xiaofen, GAO Qingde Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (10): 1677-1695.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01677 Abstract （4186）   HTML （539）    PDF（pc） （2534KB）（5923）       Knowledge map    Save Who donates more generously between high and low social classes? Existing studies have provided different answers. One potential reason is that prior research fails to distinguish between categories of survival and developmental donation. We conducted five studies to examine the differences in donor behaviour between high and low social classes in terms of preference for survival or developmental categories of donation and the underlying mechanisms involved in this decision. In Study 1, we manipulated participants’ relative sense of social class by comparing them with the highest or lowest class and measured their preference for survival and developmental donations. Results found that participants with a sense of high social class were more likely to choose developmental donations, whereas those with a sense of low social class were more likely to choose survival donations. In Study 2, we measured the participant’s’ true social class, their tendency to regulatory focus, and their preference between survival and development donations. Results found that those of high social class chose more developmental donations, whereas those of low social class chose more survival donations. Additionally, those of a higher social class had a higher promotion focus and lower prevention focus; thus, they preferred developmental donations, which supports the regulatory focus explanation. In Study 3, we adopted a between-subject design and measured participants’ true social class and their own survival or development demand, as well as their preference for survival or development donations. Results revealed that only the index of subjective social class and not objective social class showed a consistent tendency with Studies 1 and 2. The survival or development demand of high/low social class did not predict the participants’ own survival and development donations, which did not support the demand migration explanation. In Study 4, we set up survival and development items with prevention/promotion focus representation to separate the regulatory focus and demand migration explanations. We observed that subjective social classes’ choice preferences changed with representations of regulatory focus, rather than such individuals consistently choosing survival or developmental items owing to the migration of requirements. In Study 5, we set up different representations (regulatory focus × intertemporal orientation) of survival and developmental items to test whether participants’ preferences changed with representations of regulatory focus motivation or intertemporal orientation. The results showed that when developmental items were characterized as a long-term-promoted focus, high subjective social class individuals preferred developmental donations, whereas low subjective social class individuals preferred survival donations when survival items were characterized as a short-term-preventive focus. When developmental items were characterized as a long-term-preventive focus, low subjective social class individuals preferred developmental donations, whereas high social class individuals preferred survival donations when survival items were characterized as a short-term-promoted focus. These results suggest that subjective social classes’ preference for survival/developmental donation changes with the representation of regulatory focus motivation but is not consistent with the representation of intertemporal orientation; this supports the regulatory focus explanation and rejects the demand migration explanation and intertemporal preference explanation. These findings provide new insights into donation contradictions, variable mechanisms for donation between high and low social classes, and the precise motivations for providing survival and developmental donations. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Role of executive function in mathematical ability of children in different grades ZHU Xiaoliang, ZHAO Xin Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (5): 696-710.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.00696 Abstract （4506）   HTML （254）    PDF（pc） （996KB）（5827）       Knowledge map    Save Mathematical ability is an important component of children's academic achievement and critical to individual development. Executive function, as an essential cognitive ability, is a core cognitive element that supports children’s mathematical processing. However, there have only been a few studies focusing on the effects of each component of executive function on different mathematical abilities (mathematical operation, spatial imagination, and logical thinking). Primary school is the key period during which children acquire basic mathematical ability. However, limited studies have examined the developmental relationships between the various components of executive function and the different mathematical abilities of children at different grade levels. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to examine the role of each component of executive function in the different mathematical abilities of children at different grade levels. A total of 812 children in grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 completed tests covering mathematical operations, spatial imagination, and logical thinking to measure their basic mathematical ability. The Stroop task and the GO/NOGO task were used to measure interference inhibition and response inhibition. Children’s working memory span was assessed using forward and backward digit span tasks. Children’s working memory updating was investigated using simple and difficult digital updating tasks. Children’s cognitive flexibility was examined using digit shifting tasks. Finally, a correlation analysis and a structural equation model (SEM) were used to investigate the impact of each component of executive function on children’s mathematical abilities at different grade levels. The results revealed that working memory was the most important factor affecting children’s mathematical skills, over inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Specifically, working memory span was the most statistically significant predictor of ability with respect to mathematical operations, while working memory updating was a stronger predictor of spatial imagination and logical thinking ability from grade 3 to grade 6. In a further analysis of the data, we divided the four grades into two stages, with grades 3 and 4 set as the younger group and grades 5 and 6 set as the older group. The results showed working memory span to be the most important predictor of mathematical operation ability, spatial imagination ability, and logical thinking ability in the junior grades. In the older students, the predictive effect of working memory span on basic math ability dropped, and the effects of working memory updating and cognitive flexibility on basic math ability increased. These results indicate that different components of executive function play various roles in different mathematical abilities in school-age children, and that this pattern of influence appears to change as children progress through the grades. Specifically, the lower-order components of executive function components, specifically working memory span, were found to play an important role in the development of three mathematical abilities in younger students, while the higher-order executive function components, specifically working memory updating and cognitive flexibility, were found to play a more important role in processing mathematical tasks in older students. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The relationship between gratitude and social well-being: Evidence from a longitudinal study and a daily diary investigation YE Ying, ZHANG Linting, ZHAO Jingjing, KONG Feng Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (7): 1087-1098.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01087 Abstract （4411）   HTML （327）    PDF（pc） （691KB）（5809）       Knowledge map    Save The positive psychological construct of gratitude is crucial for health and well-being. Previous studies have shown a significant positive correlation between gratitude and social well-being. However, no studies have examined this potentially reciprocal relationship from a longitudinal perspective. According to the broaden-and-build theory and gratitude amplification theory, we hypothesized that gratitude has a predictive effect on social well-being. In addition, based on the personality and social relationships model and self-determination theory, we proposed that social well-being is an antecedent to gratitude. In summary, this research combines a longitudinal study and a daily diary investigation to systematically explore the causal relation between gratitude and social well-being. Study 1 employs a two-wave cross-lagged design to explore the long-term relationship between trait gratitude and social well-being. The sample comprised 563 undergraduate students, who all participated online. Pursuant to the study purpose, participants were asked to complete the gratitude and social well-being scales twice, separated by a seven-month interval. The cross-lagged path analysis suggested reciprocal effects between trait gratitude and social well-being. To reduce recall bias and explore the short-term association between gratitude and social well-being, Study 2 employs a daily diary method. A total of 274 young adults completed daily gratitude and social well-being measures for 21 consecutive days. In Study 1, trait gratitude at T1 significantly positively predicted social well-being at T2, while social well-being at T1 also significantly predicted trait gratitude at T2. These effects remained significant after controlling for age and gender. Consistent with Study 1, Study 2 also revealed a reciprocal relationship: state gratitude on one day positively predicted social well-being the next day, while social well-being on one day also positively predicted state gratitude the next day. Moreover, these relationships were stable after controlling for time trend. Overall, the results of Study 1 and Study 2 support the hypotheses by showing reciprocal predictive effects between gratitude and social well-being. In summary, we predicted that experiencing gratitude would lead to higher social well-being, which would, in turn, result in higher gratitude, activating an upward spiral. This work deepens understanding of the interaction between gratitude and social well-being, paving the way for future intervention research to help increase both. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of cultural differences between China and the West on moral responsibility judgments of virtual humans YAN Xiao, MO Tiantian, ZHOU Xinyue Acta Psychologica Sinica    2024, 56 (2): 161-178.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00161 Abstract （4058）   HTML （182）    PDF（pc） （2994KB）（5710）       Knowledge map    Save Virtual humans are digital characters created in computer graphics software that take a first-person view of the world and have a social media presence. Compared with real humans, however, are people likely to attribute moral responsibility differently to virtual humans when they do something morally wrong? This important empirical question remains unanswered. Therefore, we addressed this query using Mental Perception Theory. We did so through exploring the influence and mechanism of cultural differences between China and the West on individuals’ moral responsibility judgments of virtual humans versus real humans. Findings revealed that, when virtual humans engaged in immoral behaviors—irrespective of whether real humans or artificial intelligence (AI) controlled them—people in China (vs. the West) attributed more moral responsibility to virtual humans but equal moral responsibility to real humans. Perceived mental capacity, especially perceived experience, mediated the interaction effect of culture. Furthermore, compared to Westerners, Chinese people were more likely to punish virtual (vs. real) humans, such as by no longer following their social accounts. Five experiments revealed the foregoing findings. Study 1a and 1b used a 2 (blogger: human vs. virtual) × 2 (culture: Chinese vs. Western) between-subjects design. Two hundred Chinese and 200 American Caucasian participants were recruited in Study 1a. They first read the profile of a virtual/human blogger, Rico, on Weibo (i.e., China)/Twitter (i.e., America). Next, they were told that Rico had exposed the private behavior of a netizen, which made that individual suffer from cyber violence. After that, participants rated the moral responsibility of Rico with two items. Consistent with our prediction, there was a significant interaction effect between the Chinese/Western culture and the virtual/human blogger on moral responsibility judgments. Specifically, Chinese (vs. Western) people attributed more moral responsibility to the virtual blogger, but there was no significant difference in moral responsibility judgments toward the human blogger. In Study 1b, we recruited 200 Chinese and 199 British Caucasian participants online. We utilized a similar study design and manipulations to those employed in Study 1a. Study 1b replicated the results of Study 1 with a new scenario (i.e., tax evasion) and new methods of measuring moral responsibility judgments. Study 1c used a 3 (blogger: human s. virtual-human vs. virtual-AI) × 2 (culture: Chinese vs. Western) between-subjects design. Three hundred Chinese and 300 British Caucasian participants were recruited online. The results showed that Chinese (vs. British) people attributed greater human-like moral responsibility to a virtual human controlled by real humans as well as by artificial intelligence. Study 2 used the same study design as employed in 1b. Two hundred Chinese and 199 American Caucasian participants were recruited online. They read the same profile of the virtual/human blogger Rico and his immoral behavior (i.e., tax evasion). Then, participants rated moral responsibility judgments and mental capacity of Rico. Results revealed the mediating role of perceived mental capacity (i.e., experience, not agency) on the cultural difference of moral responsibility judgments and ruled out two possible alternative explanations. Study 3 used a 2 (culture: Chinese vs. Western) between-subjects design. One hundred Chinese participants and 101 American Caucasian participants were recruited online. This study utilized another scenario (i.e., plagiarism) and replicated the results of the four previous studies. Furthermore, we showed the downstream effect that Chinese (vs. American) people believed that the virtual human should be punished more (i.e., fining, suspending the account, and no longer following the account). In summary, based on Mental Perception Theory, this paper provided evidence for the cultural differences between Chinese people and Westerners on moral responsibility judgments of virtual humans. Perceived mental capacity (i.e., experience, not agency) mediated this interaction effect. In addition, we revealed the downstream results of moral punishment and contributed to literature on cultural differences and the theory about moral judgments on non-human entities. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Is positivity always beneficial? The effect of positive meta-stereotypes on working memory and their mechanism DONG Tiantian, XU Lulu, HE Wen Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (8): 1344-1357.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01344 Abstract （4370）   HTML （448）    PDF（pc） （749KB）（5618）       Knowledge map    Save Meta-stereotypes are ingroup beliefs regarding the stereotypes that outgroup members hold about the ingroup members. Studies on meta-stereotypes have been conducted with a focus from the negative perspective of it. In comparison, positive meta-stereotypes can have either a boost effect or a choking effect. However, there is a lack of discussion on them, especially in cognitive processing. As the core of cognitive processing, working memory influences many aspects of information processing. Based on the positive meta-stereotypes effect, this study investigates the relationship between positive meta-stereotypes and working memory, as well as their underlying mechanisms. Approach motivation may be closely related to positive meta-stereotypes and working memory. When positive meta-stereotypes are activated, individuals tend to increase approach motivation to prove that they have reached the expectations of others. In addition, approach motivation is an essential factor affecting working memory. The stronger the approach motivation is, the worse the working memory performance will be. However, approach motivation’s role in the relationship between positive meta-stereotypes and working memory remains unknown. Therefore, this study clarifies the relationship between positive meta-stereotypes and working memory and reveals approach motivation’s mediating role in the association between positive meta-stereotypes and working memory. Core self-evaluations refers to the essential evaluation of an individual’s ability and value, which may be a potential moderating variable of the meta-stereotypes effect. According to the Theory of Resource Conservation, core self-evaluations alleviates the harmful influence of external pressure on individuals. Individuals with high core self-evaluations have more resources to combat the adverse impact of pressure after positive meta-stereotypes are activated. To be more specific, when positive meta-stereotypes are activated, low core self-evaluators will experience stress, reducing working memory performance. The current study comprised three experiments. Experiment 1 aimed to explore the relationship between meta-stereotypes and working memory in college students from rural areas. All participants were randomly assigned to positive meta-stereotypes activation or control conditions. They then completed meta-stereotypes manipulation examination and N-back task. Compared with the control group, the positive meta-stereotypes activation group had a lower working memory accuracy under difficult task conditions. Experiment 2 examined the mediating effect of approach motivation. All participants were randomly assigned to positive meta-stereotypes activation or control conditions. Subsequently, they completed meta-stereotypes manipulation examination, approach motivation measurement and N-back task. The results of Experiment 1 were replicated as approach motivation played a mediating role. Finally, Experiment 3 explored the moderating effect of core self- evaluations. The participants completed core self-evaluations measures and the same measurement as Experiment 2. The results replicated the findings of Experiment 2 and found that core self-evaluations played a moderator. The working memory accuracy of the participants with high core self-evaluations decreased in the difficult task (2-back). The research results support the “stress vulnerability hypothesis”. This study enriches the previous research on meta-stereotypes and its mechanisms on working memory. These findings have theoretical value concerning meta-stereotypes effect and practical value in alleviating the harmful effects of positive meta-stereotypes. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of social value orientation on third-party altruistic behaviors in children aged 10-12 years: The role of emotion CHEN Peiqi, ZHANG Yinling, HU Xinmu, WANG Jing, MAI Xiaoqin Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (8): 1255-1269.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01255 Abstract （4413）   HTML （314）    PDF（pc） （873KB）（5616）       Knowledge map    Save Fairness plays a critical role in maintaining the social order. To understand fairness development, numerous studies have examined children's upholding fairness behaviors, such as resource allocation. In particular, the emergence of third-party altruism in Chinese children at the age of 8−10 is an important turning point in fairness development. Third-party altruism refers to the behavior of individuals voluntarily paying costs to punish violators, which is a form of prosocial behavior. Most previous studies have confirmed that social value orientation (SVO) affects prosocial behaviors, and some cognitive neuroscience studies have found that SVO and emotion together affect prosocial behaviors. However, we do not know the specific mechanisms by which children's SVO and emotions affect their third-party altruistic behaviors. Additionally, because third-party altruism can adopt punishment and compensation, the mechanisms may be different. Therefore, through two experiments, this study aimed to investigate the mechanisms of children's SVO and emotion on third-party altruism and the difference between children's third-party punishment and compensation behaviors in three offer conditions (i.e., high inequality, moderate inequality, and equality). Experiment 1 was based on the third-party punishment task and aimed to investigate the effect of children’s SVO on their emotion and punitive behaviors and to verify the mediating role of emotion. We recruited 233 children aged 10−12 years. After completing the demographic information, they were instructed to complete three third-party punishment tasks revised from the dictator game. The proposer in the dictator game offered one, three, and five coins from 10 coins to the recipient successively. As the third party, children reported the level of pleasure and decided whether to spend any integer of their endowed five coins to punish the proposer in each task. For every coin spent, two coins were deducted from the proposer’s endowment. The results revealed that prosocial children (vs. the pro-self) were more unpleased and spent more coins to punish the proposer, and emotion played a mediating role in the relationship between SVO and third-party punitive behaviors in the high inequality condition but not in the moderate inequality or equality conditions. To deeply understand children’s third-party altruistic behaviors and compare the two kinds of behaviors, we conducted Experiment 2 based on the third-party compensation task. We recruited 238 children aged 10−12 years. The experimental procedure was similar to that of Experiment 1, except that children in Experiment 2 spent coins to compensate the recipient rather than punish the proposer. The results revealed that prosocial children (vs. the pro-self) spent more coins to compensate the recipient in the high and moderate inequality conditions; emotion played a mediating role in the relationship between SVO and third-party compensation behaviors only in the high inequality condition. As for the difference between the two kinds of third-party altruistic behaviors, children in the third-party compensation (vs. punishment) task had less emotional fluctuation when confronted with three offers and spent more coins to maintain a fair order in the moderate unequal condition. These findings suggest that SVO had a stable effect on third-party punishment and compensation in 10- to 12-year-old children under all three offer conditions, and that emotion mediated the relationship between SVO and each kind of third-party altruistic behavior when children were confronted with an extremely unfair offer. Additionally, the children showed different levels of pleasure and behavior in the two third-party altruistic tasks. Our study contributes to revealing the mechanisms of SVO and emotion on two kinds of third-party altruistic behaviors and suggests that prosocial orientation is a critical factor in fostering children’s third-party altruism. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Self-compassion writing facilitates fear extinction MEI Ying, LIU Juntong, LIU Honghong, FU Yang, LUO Xi, LEI Yi Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (8): 1317-1329.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01317 Abstract （4331）   HTML （438）    PDF（pc） （878KB）（5578）       Knowledge map    Save Self-compassion is the tendency to care for and understand oneself, and cultivating this behavior is considered a promising cognitive treatment for anxiety disorders. However, the underlying mechanism of how self-compassion reduces anxiety remains unknown. Given the central role of fear extinction-based exposure therapy for the treatment of anxiety, studying how self-compassion affects fear extinction may help elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Previous studies have found that writing can be an effective way to promote self-compassion and emotional regulation. Thus, this study aimed to test the impact of self-compassion writing on fear extinction. This study contained 56 healthy effective participants, who were randomly assigned into self-compassion and control writing groups. The experimental process included five phases: pre-conditioning, negative event writing, fear conditioning, self-compassion writing, and fear extinction. All the participants completed the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS), and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) before and after the experiment. The PANAS was also assessed immediately after the negative event writing phase to assess the effectiveness of manipulation. Participants were asked to write about an adverse event that made them feel bad about themselves during the negative writing phase. The self-compassion group was guided to respond to three prompts that focus on self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. The control group was asked to write about their daily routines in a factual and unemotional manner. The shock expectancy ratings and skin conductance response (SCR) were recorded as the index of extinction learning. Three-way repeated measure ANOVA was conducted to examine the between-group differences in ratings and SCR across time extinction learning, with writing condition as the between-subject variable (self-compassion, control), and stimuli type (conditioned danger stimuli [CS+], conditioned safe stimuli [CS−]) and extinction phase (early, late) as within-subject variables. The results showed that the writing of negative events successfully reduced the positive affect (PA) of participants. There was no group difference during the fear conditioning phase and all participants successfully acquired fear. After writing intervention, the negative affect (NA) was significantly reduced in both groups. However, compared to the control group, the self-compassion group showed lower shock expectancy ratings in response to danger (CS+) and safety (CS−) cues during both early and late extinction. The SCR results showed that early extinction induced lower response than late extinction in the self-compassion group. Overall, the results demonstrate that self-compassion may promote fear extinction by regulating the response to both danger and safety cues. To our knowledge, this is the first study that uses the fear extinction model to test how self-compassion intervention can influence fear processing. Our results expand our understanding into the psychological and physiological mechanism of how self-compassion can reduce anxiety-related symptoms. These findings have several implications. First, self-compassion writing intervention is independent of control writing as a method to cope with threats. Second, compared to PANAS, shock expectancy ratings might be a sensitive indicator to characterize the effect of self-compassion intervention on anxiety-related symptoms. Finally, self-compassion might could be a reasonable strategy to counter enhanced response to danger cues and inhibited fear response to safety cues. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Test-retest reliability of EEG: A comparison across multiple resting-state and task-state experiments QIN Huiyi, DING Lihong, DUAN Wei, LEI Xu Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (10): 1587-1596.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01587 Abstract （3276）   HTML （257）    PDF（pc） （3429KB）（5440）       Knowledge map    Save Owing to its advantages in time resolution, electroencephalography (EEG) provides an important basis for studying the dynamic cognitive process of the human brain. To explore the electrophysiological mechanism of psychological processes, scalp EEG must have good test-retest reliability. Most studies explore the reliability of the resting-state EEG (rsEEG) or event-related potentials (ERP), lacking a comprehensive comparison of multiple states. We comprehensively compared the test-retest reliability of the two rsEEG with eyes-open (EO) and eyes-close (EC) states, and the ERPs of PVT and oddball tasks, from frequency, time, and spatial domains to identify more widely applicable indicators. A total of 42 healthy adults (age range = 18-26 years old; mean = 19.5 ± 1.4 years old; 14 males) underwent all three EEG recording sessions, including the present (Session 1), 90 mins later (Session 2), and one month later (Session 3). During each EEG recording session, all the participants completed the same five states including two resting states (eyes-open, eyes-closed, each with 5 minutes) and two task states (PVT and oddball task). Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) were computed to assess the test-retest reproducibility of the five states. This study compares and analyses the test-retest reliability of two resting-state and three task-state EEG from the perspectives of time, frequency, and spatial domains. Results revealed the following: (1) The test-retest reliability of rsEEG was generally better than that of ERP. (2) For rsEEG, the test-retest reliability of the EC resting-state was higher than that of the EO, with the ICC median value of approximately 0.6. Furthermore, the test-retest reliability of the alpha band was the highest in all frequency bands. (3) For the two task-states ERP, the overall ICC of the PVT paradigm was higher than that of the oddball paradigm, and the test-retest reliability was highest at about 200 ms after the stimulus onsets. (4) In the spatial domain, the test-retest reliability is higher in the central region than in the peripheral region, which may be related to the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Our research involves multiple resting-state and task-state experiments. Based on the characteristics of frequency, time, and space domains, we comprehensively compared the optimal retest characteristics of multiple EEG and suggest the possible reasons. Some suggestions for the selection of appropriate experimental paradigms and indicators for the follow-up study of EEG test-retest reliability are provided and guide the application of EEG in the basic and clinical fields. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Traditional pettism: The influence of pet ownership status, pet type, and pet properties on pet moral standing XU Kepeng, OU Qianqian, XUE Hong, LUO Dongli, ZHANG Shuyue, XU Yan Acta Psychologica Sinica    2023, 55 (10): 1662-1676.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01662 Abstract （4001）   HTML （392）    PDF（pc） （577KB）（5381）       Knowledge map    Save An increasing number of people treat pets as their family members. Although there is no specific indication, that people first think of traditional pets such as dogs or cats when referring to pets. In this study, traditional pets are defined as widely popular pets that are accompanied by human beings; Non-traditional pets are defined as unique and novel pets that are different from traditional cognition. The factors that lead to the difference in perception of pet moral standing are not only pet properties but also pet ownership status. Recently, psychologists have sought to explore the relationship between people and pets. Such research dilemmas are focused on traditional pet owners and their traditional pets, and few studies pay attention to the relationship between non-traditional pet owners and their non-traditional pets. Here, we aim to investigate whether pet properties, pet ownership status, and pet type can affect the perception of pet moral standing and its mechanism. To define the traditional pets and non-traditional pets in our study, we first conducted a pre-study (N = 29). For three studies, we used the snowball sampling technique to recruit participants voluntarily online via Qualtrics in Baidu Post Bar through a questionnaire. Study 1 explored the impact of pet ownership status, pet type, and pet properties on the perception of pet moral standing, N = 146 (traditional pet owners: 41, non-traditional pet owners: 53; women: 77). In Study 2, based on controlling the basic moral orientation, the influence of pet ownership status and pet type on the perception of pet moral standing was reverified, N = 148 (traditional pet owners: 72; women: 74). Study 3 further explored the mechanism of this effect, the purpose is to investigate the empathy for animals in the relationship between pet attachment and the perception of traditional pet moral standing, N = 202 (women: 108). The results showed that: (1) The perception of traditional pet moral standing is higher than that of non-traditional pets, agency, experience and harmfulness played a mediating role; (2) Compared to non-pet owners, pet owners perceived a higher pet moral standing; Compared to non-traditional pet owners, traditional pet owners perceived a higher traditional pet moral standing; There was no significant difference in the perception of non-traditional pets moral standing; (3) The empathy for animals played a mediating role between the traditional pet owners pet attachment and the perception of traditional pet moral standing. Pet speciesism also exists in pets, traditional pets are higher in the hierarchy than non-traditional pets. Pet owners regard pets as psychological-kin and in-group members. The positive attitude towards pets in communication and interaction can be extended to all pets. When further subdividing the pet owners, this positive attitude is more obvious in the traditional pet owners. This may be because traditional pet owners are more idealistic, and the two-way emotional attachment between traditional pet owners and pets leads to stronger empathy for animals, which ultimately manifests as a more positive moral attitude towards traditional pets. There is no preference for non-traditional pets in non-traditional pet owners, it may be to gain social approval or a strong attachment with pets isn’t formed. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The transition of latent classes of children’s learning engagement in primary school against the background of the “double reduction” policy YANG Jingyuan, YU Xiao, ZHANG Jingyi, LU Lifei, YANG Zhihui Acta Psychologica Sinica    2024, 56 (3): 295-310.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00295 Abstract （3232）   HTML （248）    PDF（pc） （877KB）（5352）       Knowledge map    Save Learning engagement, an important indicator of the learning process, has garnered extensive attention. Developmental contextualism and the integrative model of engagement posit that the interaction between individuals and environmental factors results in heterogeneous learning engagement development among individuals. Previous studies have demonstrated learning engagement heterogeneity among primary school students. However, in the context of the “double reduction” policy, the dynamic development of children’s learning engagement remains unclear. Moreover, positive parenting style, teacher-student relationships, and peer relationships, as important environmental factors, may predict children’s learning engagement transitions. Thus, this study adopts a people-centered research method to address these issues from a longitudinal perspective. This study recruited participants from three ordinary public primary schools in Shandong Province, China. Participants at T1 (June 2021, before the implementation of the “double reduction” policy) were 378 children (164 boys; mean age: 9.97 ± 0.91 years old). Participants at T2 (December 2021, six months after the implementation of the policy) were 357 primary school students (155 boys; mean age: 10.50 ± 0.94 years old). Participants at T3 (June 2022, a year after the implementation of the policy) were 347 primary school students (147 boys; mean age: 10.97 ± 0.91 years old). Students completed the Children’s Learning Engagement Scale (at T1, T2, and T3), Short-form Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran (at T1 and T2), Student Teacher Relationship Scale (at T1 and T2) and Children’s Peer Relationship Scales (at T1 and T2) during the three measurements. Latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis were employed in this study to explore children’s potential learning engagement subtypes and examine transitions between different subtypes across the three waves. Multiple logistic regressions were also used to investigate the impact of various environmental factors (i.e., positive parenting style, student−teacher relationships, and peer relationships) on the latent transitions of different learning engagement subtypes. All data were analyzed by SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 8.0. The results revealed four distinct subgroups of learning engagement among primary school students: the “Low Engaged”, “Moderately Engaged”, “High Absorption with Vigorous Disengagement”, and “Highly Engaged” groups. In addition, due to the “double reduction” policy, students in the “Moderately Engaged” and “Highly Engaged” groups displayed relative stability, while those in the “Highly Disengaged” group tended to transition toward the “Moderately Engaged” group. Regarding the “High Absorption with Vigorous Disengagement” group, the findings indicated a higher likelihood of transitioning to the “Moderately Engaged” group from T1 to T2; however, from T2 to T3, these students were more likely to remain in their original subgroup. Moreover, the study identified the varying roles of different environmental factors in children’s learning engagement subgroups. Specifically, under the “double reduction” policy, positive parenting style and teacher−student relationships exhibited robust effects on children’s learning engagement transitions. The predictive effects of teacher-student relationships varied across different learning engagement subtypes among primary school students. Additionally, the study found that peer relationships had a positive influence on the transition of children within the “Moderately Engaged” group following the implementation of the “double reduction” policy. This study provides the first evidence of heterogeneity and dynamic changes in learning engagement among Chinese primary school students, which indicates that following the implementation of the “double reduction” policy, family-school-collaborative education has made initial progress. These findings not only enhance our understanding of the dynamic development of learning engagement among primary school students but also provide empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of the “double reduction” policy implementation. Table and Figures | Reference | Related Articles | Metrics