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Special Issue on Prosocial Behavior (Part Ⅰ)


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Special Issue on Prosocial Behavior (Part Ⅰ)

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Prosocial behavior: The glory of human nature in social interaction and social development (Preface) XIE Xiaofei, KOU Yu 2024, 56 (9):  1157-1158.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01157 Abstract ( 4037 )   HTML ( 342 )   PDF (244KB) ( 6316 )   References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The changes in cooperation among strangers in China: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of social dilemmas (1999~2019) YUAN Mingliang, WU Junhui, JIN Shuxian, LIN Jing, KOU Yu, PAUL A. M. Van Lange 2024, 56 (9):  1159-1175.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01159 Abstract ( 2928 )   HTML ( 189 )   PDF (581KB) ( 3860 )   Peer Review Comments Cooperation among strangers is a key feature of social capital which facilitates societies to effectively compete with other societies. Notably, cooperation among strangers does not remain permanent or stable within a society but can shift with changes in ecology and culture. In the past few decades, China has experienced tremendous social changes, mainly manifested in rapid economic growth, rising urbanization level, more widespread higher education, and rapid development of the internet. Meanwhile, people’s residential mobility and social interaction scope has expanded. Acquaintance society has been shrinking while stranger society has been expanding. Interpersonal trust has declined and individualism has increased. However, little is known about whether cooperation (operationalized as cooperative behavior in social dilemmas) among strangers has shifted along with above societal changes within Chinese society. Thus, based on the history of experimental research on cooperation among young Chinese adults in situations involving conflicting interests (i.e., social dilemmas), this study meta-analyzed 254 studies conducted between 1999 and 2019 with 302 unique samples and effect sizes involving 29249 participants to test for possible changes over time in cooperation among strangers. We conducted meta-regression analyses applying a three-level mixed-effects meta-regression model and performed multiple imputation to handle missing data in our model. For all analyses, year of data collection was entered as the predictor, and the cooperation estimate as the outcome variable. In addition, we also simultaneously added the study characteristic variables (i.e., dilemma type, proportion of male participants, repetitions, group size, K index, communication, sanctions, and period of cooperation) as control variables to the meta-regression models to rule out the possibility that changes in cooperation are explained by study characteristics. Finally, we also calculated the magnitude of change in cooperation and reported the correlations between the sociocultural indicators and cooperation. We found cooperation among strangers increased over time in Chinese society: The cooperation rate had increased from 0.33 in 1999 to 0.45 in 2019 after controlling for other variables. In addition, some societal indicators (e.g., societal wealth, urbanization level, higher education level, and internet penetration rate) measured 10 to 5 years prior to measures of cooperation were found to be positively associated with cooperation, suggesting that they may be potential societal underpinnings of increases in cooperation. The cooperative behavior among strangers in China and the United States shows a similar upward trend, but cooperation in Chinese society has a larger increase in a shorter period. These findings have important implications for boosting public confidence in solving present and future challenges. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Generosity in poverty: The impact of material scarcity from a self-construction perspective ZHAO Na, DUAN Yujia, ZHANG Hengxing 2024, 56 (9):  1176-1189.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01176 Abstract ( 3736 )   HTML ( 326 )   PDF (576KB) ( 5230 )   Peer Review Comments The current research on the relationship between scarcity and generosity continues presenting contradictions. The theory of resource depletion suggests that scarcity of material resources limits the possibility of individuals engaging in generous behavior. An alternative hypothesis from the social context theory posits that individuals facing resource scarcity possess a more context-dependent cognitive style and are more reliant on others, thus being more attentive to others’ well-being and displaying greater generosity. To address this conflicting relationship, some studies have explored relevant discussions on the measurement standards of scarcity. However, a clear understanding of the mechanisms underlying the effects of scarcity on generous behaviors is still lacking. To better address the aforementioned issues, this study intends to approach this from the perspective of self-construction and investigate the role of face consciousness between the two. We argue that face consciousness plays a moderating role in the relationship between scarcity and generous behaviors. Specifically, individuals with low face consciousness experienced a significant negative effect of scarcity on generous behavior. Conversely, for individuals with high face consciousness, the impact of scarcity on generous behavior was not significant. Furthermore, material scarcity prompts generous behavior through a lack of face motivation. Three studies (comprising five sub-studies) were conducted to validate the hypotheses mentioned above. Study 1 (Study 1a and Study 1b) explored the influence of material scarcity on generous relational behavior. By manipulating individuals’ perception of scarcity, Study 1a utilized common life scenarios like “sharing a bill” and Study 1b focused on the scenario of choosing a restaurant for a meal, investigating the relationship between face consciousness, scarcity, and generous behavior. Building on Study 1, Study 2 (Study 2a, Study 2b) incorporated scenarios involving rule-compliance or charitable generous behavior, measured individuals’ scarcity mindsets, and manipulated the perceived importance of face to further investigate the relationships among these factors. Study 3 employed a questionnaire-based measure to investigate the roles of gaining face and giving face in the tendency toward scarcity and generous behavior. The research findings of Study1 (Study1a and Study1b) revealed that to those who experience material scarcity, individuals with a high face consciousness showed no significant differences in the amount spent on “sharing a bill” and the choice of restaurant for a meal compared to individuals in the affluent group. The results of Study 2a showed that, regarding the proportion allocated to others, scarcity and importance of face showed a significant interaction. Simple effect analysis results demonstrated that, for individuals for whom face was not important, the proportion allocated to others in the scarcity group was significantly lower than that in the affluent group. However, for individuals for whom the face was important, the proportion allocated to others in the scarcity group showed no significant difference compared to that in the affluent group. Similar research results were obtained in the charitable donation scenario in Study 2b. The results of Study 3 (n = 299) indicated that individuals facing material resource scarcity did not engage in generous behaviors to gain face for themselves. However, they exhibited generosity in upholding their own face. The results demonstrate a significant main effect of scarcity on generous behavior, indicating that scarcity has a significant negative predictive effect on generous behavior. However, based on one’s perception of the situation, the relationship between scarcity and generous behavior also changes with an individual’s self-construction. Based on previous research, this study proposes, from a psychological perspective, that being generous despite limited resources is more of a way for individuals to maintain their levels of self-esteem and social identity through generous actions, a manifestation of an individual’s defense mechanism. By studying the scarcity mindset of relatively impoverished individuals and conducting research related to prosocial behavior, it is possible to promote social harmony and scientifically manage relative poverty. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Online “donation cart” effect: The impact of “donation cart” on online charitable giving ZHAO Yuanjie, MO Zichuan, MA Jingjing 2024, 56 (9):  1190-1209.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01190 Abstract ( 1954 )   HTML ( 217 )   PDF (6020KB) ( 2640 )   Peer Review Comments In online charitable giving, low donation conversion rates present a significant challenge. While much of the prior research in this area has concentrated on factors tied to existing fundraising practices, our research proposes and examines a novel factor that could significantly impact donation conversion rates: the addition of a ‘donation cart’. Our findings suggest that adding a ‘donation cart’ can boost donations in online fundraising, which we termed the online ‘donation cart’ effect. This effect occurs because adding a ‘donation cart’ makes it easier for people to make initial decisions (i.e., deciding to add to the donation cart) and subsequently ensures consistency in their donation decisions. Furthermore, we propose that the preference for consistency moderates the ‘online donation cart’ effect, such that this effect is attenuated among those with a lower (vs. higher) preference for consistency. We conducted six preregistered studies to test our propositions. Study 1 was a mini-program experiment designed to simulate a real online fundraising environment. We developed two simulated donation platforms—one with the addition of a ‘donation cart’ and one without—to compare their fundraising performances. Subsequently, Studies 2A, 2B, and 3 were three controlled experiments that examined the joint underlying mechanisms of the online ‘donation cart’ effect: perceived decision difficulty and consistency motive. Specifically, Studies 2A and 2B compared individuals’ perceived decision difficulty and their decision intention when deciding whether to ‘add to the donation cart’ vs. ‘donate immediately’. Study 3 evaluated the impact of adding (vs. not adding) a ‘donation cart’ on individuals’ consistency motive and donation intention. Lastly, Studies 4A and 4B both measured and manipulated individuals’ preference for consistency, examining the interaction effect between adding (vs. not adding) a ‘donation cart’ and levels (lower vs. higher) of preference for consistency on individuals’ donation intentions. As predicted, Study 1 demonstrated that adding (vs. not adding) a ‘donation cart’ significantly boosted donations, thus supporting the online ‘donation cart’ effect. Studies 2A and 2B further revealed that deciding whether to ‘add to the donation cart’ (vs. ‘donate immediately’) was perceived as easier, thereby increasing individuals’ decision intention. Study 3 then established that adding (vs. not adding) a ‘donation cart’ strengthened individuals’ motivation for consistency related to their initial decisions, which ultimately increased their donation intention. Lastly, Studies 4A and 4B found that the online ‘donation cart’ effect was attenuated in individuals with a lower (vs. higher) preference for consistency, confirming the moderating role of the preference for consistency. This research contributes to the literature on donation behavior, deepening our grasp of online charitable behavior by uncovering previously unexplored determinants. Moreover, it provides practitioners in the charitable sector with important practical insights, setting the stage for more effective strategies in digital philanthropy. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The prediction bias of conspicuous altruism: Helpers underestimate social evaluations from bystanders WANG Tianhong, JIN Shan, CHENG Zipeng, LOU Yu, XIE Xiaofei 2024, 56 (9):  1210-1224.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01210 Abstract ( 2510 )   HTML ( 354 )   PDF (476KB) ( 3322 )   Peer Review Comments People who help others often find themselves in a predicament: they desire recognition for their acts of kindness, yet feel ashamed and hesitant to showcase their benevolent deeds. From a social perspective, a paradox emerges - altruistic acts must be known to be disseminated and emulated, yet the humble moral principle of "doing good without seeking recognition" discourages the active display of benevolence. Does flaunting altruistic deeds genuinely result in negative evaluations from others? This study focuses on the concept of conspicuous altruism, that is, publicly displayed altruism, and examines the perception gap between the altruist and bystander, hypothesizing that helpers would underestimate bystanders' evaluations of conspicuous altruistic behavior. We conducted seven experiments to examine the prediction bias within conspicuous altruism and delve into its underlying mechanisms. In Study 1a (N = 199), Study 1b (N = 144), and Study 1c (N = 400), we presented screenshots of conspicuous altruistic content from social media networks to preliminarily examine whether helpers underestimate bystanders' evaluations of their actions. In Study 2 (N = 140), we utilized microblogs and tangible mementos as vehicles for conspicuous altruism to retest the main effect. Study 3 (N = 140) involved simulated volunteer activities, requiring helpers to engage in actual acts of kindness while bystanders observed altruistic content, once again investigating the prediction bias. In Study 4a (N = 140) and Study 4b (N = 199), we explored the mediating role of perceived altruistic motives and the motive to flaunt, using social media posts and verbal self-promotion as forms of conspicuous altruism. Our findings revealed that, compared to helpers' predictions, bystanders perceived stronger altruistic motives behind conspicuous altruistic behavior, while the mediating role of flaunting motives was not significant. This research unveils the prediction bias associated with conspicuous altruism, where helpers tend to underestimate bystanders' evaluations of their actions, and explores the underlying psychological mechanisms. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of conspicuous altruistic behavior and its societal evaluations, providing a basis for encouraging helpers to openly address their impression management motives, actively promote altruistic actions, and thereby enhance the culture of altruism at the societal level. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Intuition or deliberation? Decision making strategies in prosocial behavior and perceptions of humanness WANG Jingyan, ZHANG Hong 2024, 56 (9):  1225-1238.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01225 Abstract ( 2782 )   HTML ( 193 )   PDF (564KB) ( 3656 )   Peer Review Comments While a body of previous research attempted to reveal which of the two decision strategies (i.e., intuition vs. deliberation) led to more prosocial behavior, we went a step further to examine the impact of decision strategies in prosocial behavior on social judgments. Specifically, we examined the link between decision strategies and perceptions of humanness. Prosocial behavior is closely related to humanness. Intuitive prosocial behavior may represent the helper’s genuine goodwill, and thus may be judged as higher in humanness than deliberative prosocial behavior. However, given the complexity of contextual factors as well as humanness, the answer to this question is more complicated than one may think. We hypothesized that intuitive prosocial behavior (vs. deliberative prosocial behavior) would be perceived as higher in the Human Nature (HN) but not the Human Uniqueness (HU) dimension, and only in highly emotional but not low emotional situations. Four experiments (valid N = 1657) were conducted where participants responded to hypothetical scenarios depicting helpers using different decision strategies in various helping situations. Study 1 investigated the differences in humanness perceptions between intuitive prosocial actors and deliberative prosocial actors in a highly emotional situation. In Study 2, we adopted a 2 (decision strategy: intuitive vs. deliberative) × 2 (situational emotionality: high vs. low) between-subject design, exploring the interaction between situational emotionality and decision strategy on humanness perceptions. Study 3 was a pre-registered study to replicate Study 2 with different scenarios. To better interpret the findings, in Study 4, we introduced a manipulation of behavioral consequences to examine whether consequences would moderate the differences in humanness perceptions between the two decision strategies. In all the studies, HN and HU were measured and analyzed separately. As hypothesized, people who performed intuitive prosocial behavior were rated higher on HN than those who performed deliberative prosocial behavior in the highly emotional situations (Study 1, t(174) = 5.44, p < 0.001, d= 0.820; Study 2, F(1, 400) = 3.45, p = 0.064; Study 3, F(1, 460) = 6.57, p = 0.011, η2p = 0.014). However, no significant difference in HU was found between the two groups in these situations. In the low emotional situations, deliberative helpers scored higher on HU than intuitive helpers (Study 2, F(1, 400) = 20.55, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.049; Study 3, F(1, 460) = 13.00, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.029), and the results on HN were not consistent; deliberative helpers were rated as higher on HN than intuitive helpers in Study 2 but not in Study 3. To reconcile the results, we manipulated behavioral consequences in Study 4, which demonstrated that although deliberative (vs. intuitive) helpers were attributed higher humanness when behavioral consequences were unknown or negative, this difference disappeared when consequences were positive, F(1, 607) = 1.42, p = 0.234. These findings enrich our understanding of prosocial behavior and humanness perceptions in complex situations. First, the results run against our intuition that intuitive actors would always be rated as higher in humanness than deliberative actors, and show that individuals’ perceptions of a prosocial actor depend on the interplay among multiple factors such as decision strategy, situational emotionality and behavioral consequences. Second, the studies demonstrate that even for prosocial behavior, which appears to be largely driven by emotions, rationality still plays an important role in the judgments of the actors’ humanness. Third, the results imply that people place a high value on rationality in performing prosocial behavior probably because they implicitly link intuitive prosocial behavior with less positive consequences. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Spontaneous giving: Processing mode and emergency affect prosocial behavior SHI Rong, LIU Chang, TANG Huilin, HAO Junyi, SHEN Wangbing 2024, 56 (9):  1239-1251.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01239 Abstract ( 2252 )   HTML ( 174 )   PDF (2060KB) ( 2911 )   Peer Review Comments Prosocial behavior is suggested to be a central feature of human life and there is an ongoing debate regarding whether individuals have, therefore, developed a general intuitive tendency to act prosocially or not. Although previous studies have found various indicators of intuitive prosociality from different perspectives, evidence on the potential causal relationship between processing mods and prosocial behavior is mixed. The social heuristics hypothesis (SHH), as a theoretical framework to address this conflicting issue, suggests that associations between processing mode and prosocial behavior are complex and multifaceted, influenced by individual variability and the contexts in which it occurs. A previous study has revealed that intuitive prosocial behavior is more likely to emerge in a perceived emergency that require immediate response. We expected that processing mode (intuition vs. deliberation) will impact people’s decision-making in different helping situations. The study focused on charitable giving. Using event-related potentials (ERPs), we examined the neural mechanisms underlying the effects of processing mode and emergency on helping behaviors. We explored whether a neural signature that rapidly encodes the motivational salience of an event, the P3, can be regulated by processing mode × situation interaction or not. Participants were required to allocate varying amounts of money between themselves and charities they initially labelled as emergency or non-emergency situation that promoted intuitive or deliberative decision making. Each participant received 70 CNY. An instruction on the screen explained that the task required participants to “Accept” or “Reject” donation offers affecting their 70 CNY. To manipulate processing mode, each participant completed fast donation sessions where they were instructed to make decisions as fast as possible, and slow donation sessions where they were instructed to stop and reflect for at least 5 seconds before deciding. EEG signals were recorded during decision making. The behavioral results indicated that both average contributions and average acceptance rates were affected by emergency, with emergency events eliciting more helping behavior compared to non-emergency events. Moreover, participants considered the offer costliness when making decisions. In emergency situations, participants were more likely to accept high-cost offers than in the non-emergency situations. The ERP components analysis revealed that: a) In the early stages, intuitive processing induced a more negative anterior N1 (AN1) compared to deliberative processing; b) Deliberative processing was associated with a more positive P2 compared to intuitive processing; c) In non-emergency situations, deliberative processing induced a more positive P3 compared to intuitive processing, whereas no significant differences were observed between processing mode in emergency situations. These results suggest that prosocial behavior is affected by both the emergency of event and the costliness of the offer. As costs increase, individuals are more inclined to help in emergency situations than in non-emergency situations. Furthermore, processing mode affects individual’s early attention and the evaluation of stimuli. Stimuli in intuition condition can capture more early attention, while stimuli in deliberation condition receive more thorough processing. Notably, deliberative processing of non-emergency events involves greater decision-making conflicts and consumes more psychological resources. Overall, these findings shed light on the connection between processing mode and human prosociality, and extend our understanding of the social heuristics hypothesis. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Network analysis and core dimensions of adolescent prosocial behavior LIN Jing, XU Boya, YANG Ying, ZHANG Qing-peng, KOU Yu 2024, 56 (9):  1252-1265.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01252 Abstract ( 4271 )   HTML ( 440 )   PDF (5972KB) ( 7603 )   Peer Review Comments Previous studies have discovered that the concept of prosocial behavior among adolescents is composed of four dimensions: commonweal-social rule, altruism, relationship, and personal trait. Utilizing this four- dimensional structure, the Prosocial Behavior Scale for Adolescents (PBSA) measurements revealed gender and grade-level differences in the importance attributed to each dimension. Furthermore, numerous prior studies on the development of adolescent prosocial behavior have yielded inconsistent results. In this study, we employed a network analysis approach to explore the network of adolescent prosocial behavior, uncovering the relationships among different dimensions and individual questionnaire items, revealing its core dimensions, and shedding light on differences across gender and grade. Conducted in 2017, this study included 9160 students from 15 schools spanning eight provinces or municipalities, namely Beijing, Fujian, Henan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Chongqing, with ages ranging from 10 to 17 and covering elementary, middle, and high school students. We utilized the PBSA, consisting of 15 items based on the four-dimensional concept, to assess and analyze the network of adolescent prosocial behavior. The network analysis process followed the standardization guidelines published by Epskamp et al, utilizing qgraph in the R programming for network estimation and computation of centrality indices. Finally, we performed comparisons of dimension networks and item networks across different genders and grades. In the overall network of adolescent prosocial behavior, as well as in the grade- and gender-based networks, the commonweal-social rule dimension consistently exhibited the highest centrality, followed by altruism, relationship, and traits dimensions. Compared to the prosocial behavior network in females, the male prosocial behavior network showed higher centrality in the commonweal-social rule and relationship dimensions, occupying more central positions within the network. When comparing prosocial behavior networks across different grades, the commonweal-social rule dimension occupied the most central position in all grades. Moreover, its centrality was highest in the middle school group. The centrality of the altruism dimension was highest in the high school group, while the relationship and personal trait dimensions held the highest centrality in the elementary school group. As for the network structure, no differences were found in the gender-based dimension networks. However, differences were identified in the grade-based dimension networks, with high school students exhibiting significantly weaker network strength than middle and elementary school students. Similarly, no notable differences were observed in the item networks based on gender, but differences were found in the item networks based on grade. Taken together, the current study has found that, in the overall sample as well as among different genders and grades, the commonweal-social rule consistently serves as a core dimension within the network structure of prosocial behavior. There were significant grade differences in both dimension networks and item prosocial behavior networks, along with subtle gender differences in item networks. These results provide a new perspective for deepening our understanding of adolescent prosocial behavior and expanding the research domain of prosocial behavior. These findings suggest that future interventions targeting the commonweal-social rule and altruism dimensions could potentially boost overall prosocial behavior in adolescents. The middle school stage may be a critical period for promoting commonweal-social rule prosocial behavior. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effects of compensatory behaviour on group-based guilt, group-based responsibility, and group-based shame in moral transgressors LI Zhiai, XU Mengsi, ZHANG Li 2024, 56 (9):  1266-1281.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01266 Abstract ( 2419 )   HTML ( 327 )   PDF (2322KB) ( 3449 )   Peer Review Comments Guilt and compensation have long been research hotspots in the field of social emotions. Previous studies have mainly focused on how the prosocial attributes of guilt promote moral compensation and benefit victims. They have not thoroughly investigated how the guilt-induced compensation modulates moral transgressors’ moral emotion and moral cognition. If guilt-induced compensation is solely aimed at compensating the victims, it would be equivalent for the transgressors whether the compensation to the victims comes from themselves or from a third-party. If compensation behaviour also has an impact on the transgressors themselves, third-party compensation would differ from self-compensation. To examine this issue, the present study investigates how moral compensation affects moral transgressors’ moral emotions and moral perceptions through group-based guilt. Experiment 1 (n = 213) utilises a 2 (Group: In-group vs. Out-group) × 3 (Compensation Type: None- compensation vs. Third-party compensation vs. Self-compensation) within-subject design, employing a scenario imagination method to induce group-based guilt. Experiment 2 (n = 105) builds upon the first experiment by using a group-based interpersonal interaction paradigm to induce group-based guilt within a laboratory setting. Additionally, it quantifies the amounts of third-party and self-compensation to eliminate the potential confounding effect of compensation quantity. Experiment 3 (n = 128) further examined the stability of the results from Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 in non-collegiate population. The experimental designs of Experiments 2 and 3 are the same as those of Experiment 1. These three experiments consistently found that compared to the none-compensation condition, self-compensation significantly reduced group-based guilt and the perception of group-based responsibility, without inducing group-based shame. Third-party compensation also significantly reduced group-based guilt but to a lesser degree than self-compensation. At the same time, third-party compensation failed to reduce the perception of group-based responsibility and even elicited group-based shame. The differential impact of self-compensation and third-party compensation on guilt, responsibility, and shame suggests that guilt-induced compensation behaviour not only benefits the victims but also has positive effects on the transgressors themselves, serving as a form of self-regulation. Through compensation, transgressors can alleviate their feelings of guilt, reduce their sense of responsibility, and diminish the occurrence of shame. Previous research has predominantly regarded guilt as a negative emotion characterised by feelings of guilt and self-blame, emphasising its prosocial attributes towards victims while overlooking the potential benefits that transgressors may derive from guilt-induced prosocial behaviour. The present study suggests that compensatory behaviour triggered by guilt not only benefits the victims but also has a positive impact on the transgressors themselves, serving as a self-regulatory mechanism. Through compensation, transgressors can alleviate their feelings of guilt, reduce their sense of responsibility, and diminish the occurrence of shame. This finding demonstrates the dual effects of guilt, encompassing both concern and compensation towards victims as well as the regulation and restoration of one’s own psychological state, thereby expanding our understanding of the prosocial attributes of guilt. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of infectious disease cues and donation protagonists on blood donation intention GONG Yuwen, DAI Ying, MA Zujun 2024, 56 (9):  1282-1298.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01282 Abstract ( 785 )   HTML ( 134 )   PDF (3179KB) ( 930 )   Peer Review Comments When infectious diseases are prevalent, people are often reluctant to give blood for fear of infection, resulting in a “blood shortage” In response, blood collection agencies across China have launched relevant initiatives to encourage the public to donate blood. To recruit blood donors, blood collection agencies use different advertising strategies to attract people’s attention. For example, some display people in need of help and others display blood donors in their recruitment campaigns. What type or types of donation protagonist are most effective in recruitment campaigns during an infectious disease outbreak? This issue has become particularly important in recent years, with the increasing emergence of infectious diseases. It is therefore essential to understand how blood collection agencies should recruit donors when signs of infectious disease appear. Motivated by this issue, this study explored the joint impact of infectious disease cues and donation protagonists on the intention to donate blood and the psychological mechanisms underlying this impact. Study 1 adopted a 2 (donation protagonist: donor vs. recipient) × 2 (infectious disease cues: yes vs. no) between-subjects design and used a reading comprehension task to manipulate the salience of infectious disease cues. We recruited 207 college students and randomly assigned them to one group with infectious disease cues and one without. The participants then viewed recruitment messages with different donation protagonists (donor vs. recipient). Next, the participants were asked whether they would be willing to donate blood. For those who answered yes and were willing to leave their contact details, we helped them make an appointment to donate blood at the nearest blood bank. Study 1 provided preliminary evidence that recipient (vs. donor) protagonists reduce people’s intention to donate blood when infectious disease cues are salient. Studies 2A and 2B further supported the results of Study 1 by adding a no-donation protagonist and two control groups (accidental threat and non-infectious disease threat). Specifically, Study 2A adopted a 3 (donation protagonist: donor vs. recipient vs. none) × 2 (threat type: infectious disease vs. accident) between-subjects design and recruited 306 participants from a questionnaire platform. We manipulated the threat type through a slideshow. After viewing the slides, the participants viewed recruitment messages with different donation protagonists and reported their intention to donate blood. Study 2B adopted a 3 (donation protagonist: donor vs. recipient vs. none) × 2 (threat type: infectious disease vs. non-infectious disease) between-subjects design and recruited 285 participants from the questionnaire platform. We used pictures and text to manipulate the contagiousness of the disease. After viewing the slides, the participants viewed recruitment messages with different donation protagonists and reported their intention to donate blood. The results showed that compared with donor protagonists, recipient protagonists played a less effective role and reduced people’s willingness to donate blood when exposed to an infectious disease (vs. accident and non-infectious disease) threat. Study 3 adopted a single-factor (donation protagonist: donor vs. recipient vs. none) between-groups design and recruited 151 participants from the questionnaire platform. The priming material for the infectious disease cues was a short news report on COVID-19 reinfection. The participants were randomly divided into three groups after viewing the news report to view recruitment information on donation protagonists. The participants then reported their willingness to donate blood using the same measurement scale as in Study 2A. Next, the participants reported their state anxiety. In addition, to rule out alternative explanations, the participants reported their levels of empathy, perceived threat, medical fear, and other state-based emotions (disgust and fear). The results showed that recipient (vs. donor) protagonists increased the participants’ anxiety levels, thereby reducing their willingness to donate blood. Studies 4A and 4B examined the moderating role of self-construal by measuring chronic self-construal and situational self-construal and further verified the mediating role of state anxiety. Specifically, Study 4A adopted a 2 (donation protagonist: donor vs. recipient) × 2 (self-construal: interdependent vs. independent) between-subjects design and recruited 199 participants from the questionnaire platform. We measured the participants’ blood donation intention, state anxiety, empathy, perceived threat, medical fear, and other state-based emotions (disgust and fear) by priming infectious disease cues as salient. Finally, the participants’ chronic self-construal was measured. Study 4B adopted a 2 (donation protagonist: donor vs. recipient) × 2 (self-construal: interdependent vs. independent) × 2 (infectious disease cues: yes vs. no) between-subjects design and recruited 357 participants from the questionnaire platform. Study 4B used the pronoun-circling method to manipulate self-construal, and the participants then reported information consistent with Study 4A. The results revealed that the participants with an interdependent orientation who viewed recruitment messages with recipient (vs. donor) protagonists exhibited increased state anxiety, which reduced their intention to donate blood. In summary, the results of the four studies provide strong empirical evidence for the joint effect of infectious disease cues and donation protagonists on blood donation intention, the moderating impact of self-construal on this joint effect, and the underlying psychological mechanism due to state anxiety. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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A cognitive computational mechanism for mutual cooperation: The roles of positive expectation and social reward WU Xiaoyan, FU Hongyu, ZHANG Tengfei, BAO Dongqi, HU Jie, ZHU Ruida, FENG Chunliang, GU Ruolei, LIU Chao 2024, 56 (9):  1299-1312.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.01299 Abstract ( 2061 )   HTML ( 257 )   PDF (5036KB) ( 2607 )   Peer Review Comments People usually exhibit conditional cooperative behavior during cooperation; that is, they cooperate only when they expect others will cooperate as well. The cognitive computations and the dynamic processes underlying such conditional cooperation in repeated interactions remain underexplored. To this end, this study investigates the cognitive mechanisms behind conditional cooperation, focusing on two hidden mental variables: positive expectation (participants’ expected cooperation willingness of the partner) and the perception of social reward (additional reward derived from reciprocity). Using a repeated aversion of Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG), we conducted two experiments (n = 134 in Experiment 1 and n = 104 in Experiment 2) in this study. Nonsocial context (playing PDG with a computer program) was created to test if the effects are specific to social context (playing PDG with a supposed human partner). By manipulating partners' cooperation probabilities and response variability, we explored how positive expectation and social reward evolve during cooperation and to affect participants’ behavioral outputs. We systematically developed six models to model participants’ decision process during PDG. These models range from baseline model with random choice assumption (Model 1) to more complex formulations incorporating reward-based learning (Model 2), rational choice theory (Model 3), social reward (Model 4), and the integration of different learning rules (Models 5 to 6). The results of two experiments consistently demonstrated that participants dynastically adjust their cooperation decisions in response to their partners' behaviors. After separating the effects that may be brought by the partner's cooperation probability from those of response vocality, we found that participants' cooperation increases with their partner’s increased cooperative behaviors, rather than with the partner's response volatility, an effect specific to social context. Model comparisons showed that participants' behaviors in both social and nonsocial contexts were best described by a model assuming social rewards and incorporating a learning algorithm that includes both first-order beliefs (based solely on others' past behavior) and second-order beliefs (considering both others' past behavior and the influence of their own behavior on others) to update their expectations of their partners' cooperation. The results indicated that increasing conditional cooperation is driven by both participants' positive expectation and social reward, effects that were specific to a social context. This study elucidated the cognitive computational dynamics of conditional cooperation, highlighted the roles of positive expectation and social reward, and showed that people applied a complex model with both first-order and second-order beliefs to update their expectations of their partner’s willingness to cooperate. These contributions underscore the importance of understanding the mental processes that encourage mutual cooperation. Future studies might explore the neural correlates of these mechanisms or apply these insights to more complex scenarios, bridging the gap between laboratory research findings and real-world collaboration. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics