Risk-taking research based on the Balloon Analog Risk Task

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.01377

Abstract

Abstract:

In daily life and work, people inevitably need to make choices and decisions under risky situations. The existence of risks may bring some negative consequences to the decision-makers or maybe the beginning of new opportunities. Therefore, how people make effective decisions in different risky situations and the cognitive neural mechanism behind it has been a research hotspot in many disciplines. For many years, a variety of measurements have been used to explore an individual’s risk-taking behaviors. Many studies leverage self-reported instruments to investigate risk (e.g., Sensation-Seeking Scale, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale), while others measure risk-taking using some paradigms. The Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART) is extensively accepted and applied by many researchers due to its well simulation of real-life risk-taking situations in a laboratory environment. The current study synthesizes the BART’s reliability and validity compared to other paradigms and further probes the advantages of using the BART as the measuring instrument of risk-taking behaviors. Moreover, the present study also discusses the evolution of the paradigm and summarizes the research progress of BART based on the existing behavioral and neural studies. Finally, some deficiencies of BART and the prospects for its development are put forward in conclusion.
Compared with other risk-taking paradigms, the BART has been proved to be of high ecology, stability, and reliability under different risk circumstances. It has become one of the most widely used paradigms for risky decision-making research. It also has unique advantages in the prediction of some risks, such as smoking, drinking and substance use. As the pioneering behavioral paradigm that was exploited to measure adolescent risk-taking behaviors, the BART contributes a lot to exploring youths' addiction and substance use. Recently, researchers have developed a series of variants of the BART paradigm to adapt to the needs of different research situations. Many studies have leveraged the BART to extensively explore neural correlates of risk-taking behaviors in developmental, healthy, pathological, and addiction research. Overall, BART can not only meet the needs of behavioral measurement in different risk scenarios; but also be well combined with a series of neural measurement techniques. Neuroimaging studies have confirmed that risk-taking in the BART is associated with activations in multiple brain regions, including the ventral striatum, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, midbrain, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest that the risk-taking behaviors measured by the BART involve rewards, emotions, learning, and evaluation. BART is also regarded as a classical paradigm for sequential risk decision-making. Similar findings are mentioned in the computational modeling of the BART data in sequential risk-taking consequences, emphasizing the critical role of learning and evaluation processes in the task.
Although the BART has been widely used in risk-taking research, future studies are still needed to further improve the reliability and stability of the BART for cognitive neuroscience research and expand its application scope. Currently, the BART research at the neural level still lacks large sample data, which may lead to incorrect research results like underestimating the possibility of an individual’s risk-taking in real life. It is necessary to further expand the sample size, build a database based on the BART behavior and neuroimaging experiments, and share data and research results in different fields and levels to enhance our understanding of risky decision-making.

Key words: The Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART), risk decision-making, cognitive neural mechanism

CLC Number:

B842

DENG Yao, WANG Mengmeng, RAO Hengyi. Risk-taking research based on the Balloon Analog Risk Task[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2022, 30(6): 1377-1392.

References 94

[1]	刘晓婷, 张丽锦, 张宁. (2019). 睡眠质量对冒险行为影响的证据及解析. 心理科学进展, 27(11), 1875-1886.
[2]	田录梅, 袁竞驰, 李永梅. (2017). 同伴在场和自尊水平对青少年冒险行为的影响: 来自ERPs的证据. 心理学报, 50(1), 47-57.
[3]	徐四华, 方卓, 饶恒毅. (2013). 真实和虚拟金钱奖赏影响风险决策行为. 心理学报, 45(8), 874-886.
[4]	Aklin W. M., Lejuez C. W., Zvolensky M. J., Kahler C. W., & Gwadz M. (2005). Evaluation of behavioral measures of risk taking propensity with inner city adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(2), 215-228. pmid: 15629751
[5]	Anokhin A. P., Golosheykin S., Grant J., & Heath A. C. (2009). Heritability of risk-taking in adolescence: A longitudinal twin study. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 12(4), 366-371. doi: 10.1375/twin.12.4.366 pmid: 19653837
[6]	Banducci A. N., Felton J. W., Dahne J., Ninnemann A., & Lejuez C. W. (2015). Maternal risk taking on the balloon analogue risk task as a prospective predictor of youth alcohol use escalation. Addictive Behaviors, 49, 40-45. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.05.011 pmid: 26046400
[7]	Ba Y., Zhang W., Peng Q., Salvendy G., & Crundall D. (2016). Risk-taking on the road and in the mind: Behavioural and neural patterns of decision making between risky and safe drivers. Ergonomics, 59(1), 27-38. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2015.1056236 URL
[8]	Bechara A., Damasio A. R., Damasio H., & Anderson S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50(1-3), 7-15. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(94)90017-5 URL
[9]	Buelow M. T., & Barnhart W. R. (2017). The influence of math anxiety, math performance, worry, and test anxiety on the Iowa Gambling Task and Balloon Analogue Risk Task. Assessment, 24(1), 127-137. doi: 10.1177/1073191115602554 URL
[10]	Buelow M. T., & Blaine A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. Psychological Assessment, 27(3), 777. doi: 10.1037/a0038622 URL
[11]	Canning J. R., Schallert M. R., & Larimer M. E. (2021). A systematic review of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) in Alcohol Research. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 57(1), 85-103. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agab004 URL
[12]	Cavanagh J. F., Neville D., Cohen M. X., van de Vijver I., Harsay H., Watson P., … Ridderinkhof K. R. (2012). Individual differences in risky decision-making among seniors reflect increased reward sensitivity. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 111. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00111 pmid: 22822391
[13]	Cazzell M., Li L., Lin Z. J., Patel S. J., & Liu H. (2012). Comparison of neural correlates of risk decision making between genders: An exploratory fNIRS study of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). NeuroImage, 62(3), 1896-1911. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.05.030 pmid: 22634214
[14]	Ciccarelli M., Griffiths M. D., Cosenza M., Nigro G., & D'Olimpio F. (2020). Disordered gambling and attentional bias: The mediating role of risk-taking. Journal of Affective Disorders, 272, 496-500. doi: S0165-0327(19)32961-1 pmid: 32553393
[15]	Crişan L. G., Pană S., Vulturar R., Heilman R. M., Szekely R., Drugă B., … Miu A. C. (2009). Genetic contributions of the serotonin transporter to social learning of fear and economic decision making. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4(4), 399-408. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsp019 pmid: 19535614
[16]	D’Alessandro M., Gallitto G., Greco A., & Lombardi L. (2020). A joint modelling approach to analyze risky decisions by means of diffusion tensor imaging and behavioural data. Brain Sciences, 10(3), 138. doi: 10.3390/brainsci10030138 URL
[17]	Deakin J., Aitken M., Robbins T., & Sahakian B. J. (2004). Risk taking during decision-making in normal volunteers changes with age. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10(4), 590. pmid: 15327737
[18]	Deuter C. E., Wingenfeld K., Schultebraucks K., Hellmann-Regen J., Piber D., & Otte C. (2017). Effects of mineralocorticoid-receptor stimulation on risk taking behavior in young healthy men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 75, 132-140. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.10.018 URL
[19]	Duell N., Steinberg L., Icenogle G., Chein J., Chaudhary N., di Giunta L., … Chang L. (2018). Age patterns in risk taking across the world. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(5), 1052-1072. doi: 10.1007/s10964-017-0752-y URL
[20]	Essex B. G., Lejuez C. W., Qian R. Y., Bernstein K., & Zald D. H. (2011). The Balloon Analog Insurance Task (BAIT): A behavioral measure of protective risk management. PLoS One, 6(6), e21448.
[21]	Fernie G., Cole J. C., Goudie A. J., & Field M. (2010). Risk-taking but not response inhibition or delay discounting predict alcohol consumption in social drinkers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 112(1-2), 54-61. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.04.021 URL
[22]	Frey R., Pedroni A., Mata R., Rieskamp J., & Hertwig R. (2017). Risk preference shares the psychometric structure of major psychological traits. Science Advances, 3(10), e1701381.
[23]	Galván A., Schonberg T., Mumford J., Kohno M., Poldrack R. A., & London E. D. (2013). Greater risk sensitivity of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in young smokers than in nonsmokers. Psychopharmacology, 229(2), 345-355. doi: 10.1007/s00213-013-3113-x URL
[24]	Giustiniani J., Joucla C., Bennabi D., Nicolier M., Chabin T., Masse C., … Gabriel D. (2019). Behavioral and electrophysiological arguments in favor of a relationship between impulsivity, risk-taking, and success on the Iowa Gambling Task. Brain Sciences, 9(10), 248. doi: 10.3390/brainsci9100248 URL
[25]	Guo H., Zhang Z., Da S., Sheng X., & Zhang X. (2018). High‐Definition transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (HD‐tDCS) of left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex affects performance in Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). Brain and Behavior, 8(2), e00884.
[26]	Gu R., Zhang D., Luo Y., Wang H., & Broster L. S. (2018). Predicting risk decisions in a modified Balloon Analogue Risk Task: Conventional and single-trial ERP analyses. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 18( 1), 99-116.
[27]	Herzberg M. P., Hodel A. S., Cowell R. A., Hunt R. H., Gunnar M. R., & Thomas K. M. (2018). Risk taking, decision-making, and brain volume in youth adopted internationally from institutional care. Neuropsychologia, 119, 262-270. doi: S0028-3932(18)30525-6 pmid: 30170080
[28]	Hill E. M., & Chow K. (2002). Life‐history theory and risky drinking. Addiction, 97(4), 401-413. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00020.x URL
[29]	Hobkirk A. L., Bell R. P., Utevsky A. V., Huettel S., & Meade C. S. (2019). Reward and executive control network resting-state functional connectivity is associated with impulsivity during reward-based decision making for cocaine users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 194, 32-39. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.013
[30]	Huhn A. S., Brooner R. K., Sweeney M. M., Yip S. W., Ayaz H., & Dunn K. E. (2019). Increased neural activity in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during a risky decision-making task is associated with cocaine use in methadone-maintained patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 205, 107650.
[31]	Hunt M. K., Hopko D. R., Bare R., Lejuez C. W., & Robinson E. V. (2005). Construct validity of the Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART): Associations with psychopathy and impulsivity. Assessment, 12(4), 416-428. doi: 10.1177/1073191105278740 URL
[32]	Huo H., Zhang R., Seger C. A., Feng T., & Chen Q. (2020). The effect of trait anxiety on risk‐taking: Functional coupling between right hippocampus and left insula. Psychophysiology, 57(10), e13629.
[33]	Hüpen P., Habel U., Schneider F., Kable J. W., & Wagels L. (2019). Impulsivity moderates skin conductance activity during decision making in a modified version of the Balloon Analog Risk Task. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, 345. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00345 URL
[34]	Jentsch J. D., Woods J. A., Groman S. M., & Seu E. (2010). Behavioral characteristics and neural mechanisms mediating performance in a rodent version of the Balloon Analog Risk Task. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(8), 1797-1806. doi: 10.1038/npp.2010.47 pmid: 20375994
[35]	Karakowsky L., & Elangovan A. R. (2001). Risky decision making in mixed-gender teams: Whose risk tolerance matters? Small Group Research, 32(1), 94-111. doi: 10.1177/104649640103200105 URL
[36]	Kessler L., Hewig J., Weichold K., Silbereisen R. K., & Miltner W. H. (2017). Feedback negativity and decision- making behavior in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) in adolescents is modulated by peer presence. Psychophysiology, 54(2), 260-269. doi: 10.1111/psyp.12783 pmid: 27781281
[37]	Killgore W. D. S., Kamimori G. H., & Balkin T. J. (2011). Caffeine protects against increased risk-taking propensity during severe sleep deprivation. Journal of Sleep Research, 20(3), 395-403. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2869.2010.00893.x pmid: 20946437
[38]	Kim M., Kim S., Lee K. U., & Jeong B. (2020). Pessimistically biased perception in panic disorder during risk learning. Depression and Anxiety, 37(7), 609-619. doi: 10.1002/da.23007 URL
[39]	Kohno M., Ghahremani D. G., Morales A. M., Robertson C. L., Ishibashi K., Morgan A. T., … London E. D. (2013). Risk-taking behavior: Dopamine D2/D3 receptors, feedback, and frontolimbic activity. Cerebral Cortex, 25(1), 236-245. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bht218 URL
[40]	Kohno M., Morales A. M., Ghahremani D. G., Hellemann G., & London E. D. (2014). Risky decision making, prefrontal cortex, and mesocorticolimbic functional connectivity in methamphetamine dependence. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(7), 812-820. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.399 URL
[41]	Kohno M., Morales A. M., Guttman Z., & London E. D. (2017). A neural network that links brain function, white- matter structure and risky behavior. NeuroImage, 149, 15-22. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.01.058 URL
[42]	Kohno M., Nurmi E. L., Laughlin C. P., Morales A. M., Gail E. H., Hellemann G. S., & London E. D. (2015). Functional genetic variation in dopamine signaling moderates prefrontal cortical activity during risky decision making. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(3), 695-703. doi: 10.1038/npp.2015.192 URL
[43]	Korucuoglu O., Harms M. P., Astafiev S. V., Kennedy J. T., Golosheykin S., Barch D. M., & Anokhin A. P. (2020). Test-retest reliability of fMRI-measured brain activity during decision making under risk. NeuroImage, 214, 116759.
[44]	Leigh B. C. (1999). Peril, chance, adventure: Concepts of risk, alcohol use and risky behavior in young adults. Addiction, 94(3), 371-383. pmid: 10605866
[45]	Lei Y., Wang L., Chen P., Li Y., Han W., Ge M., … Yang Z. (2016). Neural correlates of increased risk-taking propensity in sleep-deprived people along with a changing risk level. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 11(6), 1910-1921. doi: 10.1007/s11682-016-9658-7 URL
[46]	Lejuez C. W., Aklin W., Daughters S., Zvolensky M., Kahler C., & Gwadz M. (2007). Reliability and validity of the youth version of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART-Y) in the assessment of risk-taking behavior among inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(1), 106-111. pmid: 17206886
[47]	Lejuez C. W., Aklin W. M., Jones H. A., Richards J. B., Strong D. R., Kahler C. W., & Read J. P. (2003). The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) differentiates smokers and nonsmokers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11(1), 26-33. doi: 10.1037//1064-1297.11.1.26 pmid: 12622341
[48]	Lejuez C. W., Aklin W. M., Zvolensky M. J., & Pedulla C. M. (2003). Evaluation of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) as a predictor of adolescent real-world risk-taking behaviours. Journal of Adolescence, 26(4), 475-479. doi: 10.1016/s0140-1971(03)00036-8 pmid: 12887935
[49]	Lejuez C. W., Read J. P., Kahler C. W., Richards J. B., Ramsey S. E., Stuart G. L., … Brown R. A. (2002). Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk taking: The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(2), 75-84. doi: 10.1037/1076-898X.8.2.75 URL
[50]	Lighthall N. R., Mather M., & Gorlick M. A. (2009). Acute stress increases sex differences in risk seeking in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task. PLoS One, 4(7), e6002.
[51]	Li L., Cazzell M., Zeng L., & Liu H. (2016). Are there gender differences in young vs. aging brains under risk decision-making? An optical brain imaging study. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 11(4), 1085-1098. doi: 10.1007/s11682-016-9580-z URL
[52]	Li M., Mai Z., Yang J., Zhang B., & Ma N. (2020). Ideal time of day for risky decision making: Evidence from the Balloon Analogue Risk Task. Nature and Science of Sleep, 12, 477. doi: 10.2147/NSS.S260321 URL
[53]	Liu Z., Liu T., & Mu S. (2021). Gender differences in the effects of competition and cooperation on risk‐taking under ambiguity. PsyCh Journal, 10(3), 374-383. doi: 10.1002/pchj.419 URL
[54]	Li X., Pan Y., Fang Z., Lei H., Zhang X., Shi H., … Rao H. (2020). Test-retest reliability of brain responses to risk-taking during the Balloon Analogue Risk Task. NeuroImage, 209, 116495.
[55]	Mason A. E., Schleicher S., Coccia M., Epel E. S., & Aschbacher K. (2018). Chronic stress and impulsive risk‐taking predict increases in visceral fat over 18 months. Obesity, 26(5), 869-876. doi: 10.1002/oby.22150 URL
[56]	McCormick E. M., & Telzer E. H. (2017). Failure to retreat: Blunted sensitivity to negative feedback supports risky behavior in adolescents. NeuroImage, 147, 381-389. doi: S1053-8119(16)30764-9 pmid: 27989774
[57]	McIlvain G., Clements R. G., Magoon E. M., Spielberg J. M., Telzer E. H., & Johnson C. L. (2020). Viscoelasticity of reward and control systems in adolescent risk taking. NeuroImage, 215, 116850.
[58]	Mehta P. H., Welker K. M., Zilioli S., & Carré J. M. (2015). Testosterone and cortisol jointly modulate risk-taking. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 56, 88-99. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.02.023 URL
[59]	Park H., Yang J., Vassileva J., & Ahn W. Y. (2021). Development of a novel computational model for the Balloon Analogue Risk Task: The exponential-weight mean-variance model. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 102, 102532.
[60]	Pei R., Lauharatanahirun N., Cascio C. N., O’Donnell M. B., Shope J. T., Simons-Morton B. G., … Falk E. B. (2020). Neural processes during adolescent risky decision making are associated with conformity to peer influence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 44, 100794.
[61]	Pleskac T. J. (2008). Decision making and learning while taking sequential risks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(1), 167. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.34.1.167 URL
[62]	Pleskac T. J., Wallsten T. S., Wang P., & Lejuez C. W. (2008). Development of an automatic response mode to improve the clinical utility of sequential risk-taking tasks. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(6), 555. doi: 10.1037/a0014245 URL
[63]	Rao H., Korczykowski M., Pluta J., Hoang A., & Detre J. A. (2008). Neural correlates of voluntary and involuntary risk taking in the human brain: an fMRI study of the Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART). NeuroImage, 42(2), 902-910. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.05.046 URL
[64]	Rao H., Mamikonyan E., Detre J. A., Siderowf A. D., Stern M. B., Potenza M. N., & Weintraub D. (2010). Decreased ventral striatal activity with impulse control disorders in Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders, 25(11), 1660-1669. doi: 10.1002/mds.23147 URL
[65]	Rao L. L., Zhou Y., Liang Z. Y., Rao H., Zheng R., Sun Y., … Li S. (2014). Decreasing ventromedial prefrontal cortex deactivation in risky decision making after simulated microgravity: Effects of -6° head-down tilt bed rest. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 187. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00187 pmid: 24904338
[66]	Rao L. L., Zhou Y., Zheng D., Yang L. Q., & Li S. (2018). Genetic contribution to variation in risk taking: A functional MRI twin study of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task. Psychological Science, 29(10), 1679-1691. doi: 10.1177/0956797618779961 pmid: 30028645
[67]	Rogers R. D., Everitt B. J., Baldacchino A., Blackshaw A. J., Swainson R., Wynne K., … Robbins T. W. (1999). Dissociable deficits in the decision-making cognition of chronic amphetamine abusers, opiate abusers, patients with focal damage to prefrontal cortex, and tryptophan- depleted normal volunteers: Evidence for monoaminergic mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology, 20(4), 322-339. doi: 10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00091-8 pmid: 10088133
[68]	Schmidt B., Kessler L., Holroyd C. B., & Miltner W. H. R. (2019). Wearing a bike helmet leads to less cognitive control, revealed by lower frontal midline theta power and risk indifference. Psychophysiology, 56(12), e13458.
[69]	Schonberg T., Fox C. R., Mumford J. A., Congdon E., Trepel C., & Poldrack R. A. (2012). Decreasing ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity during sequential risk-taking: An fMRI investigation of the Balloon Analog Risk Task. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 80. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00080 pmid: 22675289
[70]	Sehrig S., Weiss A., Miller G. A., & Rockstroh B. (2019). Decision‐ and feedback‐related brain potentials reveal risk processing mechanisms in patients with alcohol use disorder. Psychophysiology, 56(12), e13450.
[71]	Sela T., Kilim A., & Lavidor M. (2012). Transcranial alternating current stimulation increases risk-taking behavior in the Balloon Analog Risk Task. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 22. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00022 pmid: 22347844
[72]	Skeel R. L., Neudecker J., Pilarski C., & Pytlak K. (2007). The utility of personality variables and behaviorally-based measures in the prediction of risk-taking behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(1), 203-214. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.025 URL
[73]	Slovic P. (1964). Assessment of risk taking behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 61(3), 220. doi: 10.1037/h0043608 URL
[74]	Telzer E. H., Fuligni A. J., Lieberman M. D., & Galván A. (2013). Meaningful family relationships: Neurocognitive buffers of adolescent risk taking. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 25(3), 374-387. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_00331 pmid: 23163412
[75]	Upton D. J., Bishara A. J., Ahn W. Y., & Stout J. C. (2011). Propensity for risk taking and trait impulsivity in the Iowa Gambling Task. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(4), 492-495. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.11.013 URL
[76]	van Ravenzwaaij D., Dutilh G., & Wagenmakers E.-J. (2011). Cognitive model decomposition of the BART: Assessment and application. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55(1), 94-105. doi: 10.1016/j.jmp.2010.08.010 URL
[77]	Wagels L., Votinov M., Radke S., Clemens B., Montag C., Jung S., & Habel U. (2017). Blunted insula activation reflects increased risk and reward seeking as an interaction of testosterone administration and the MAOA polymorphism. Human Brain Mapping, 38(9), 4574-4593. doi: 10.1002/hbm.23685 pmid: 28603901
[78]	Wallsten T. S., Pleskac T. J., & Lejuez C. W. (2005). Modeling behavior in a clinically diagnostic sequential risk-taking task. Psychological Review, 112(4), 862. pmid: 16262471
[79]	Wang J., Fan Y., Dong Y., Ma M., Dong Y., Niu Y., … Cui C. (2018). Combining gray matter volume in the cuneus and the cuneus-prefrontal connectivity may predict early relapse in abstinent alcohol-dependent patients. PLoS One, 13(5), e0196860.
[80]	Wang J., Fan Y., Dong Y., Ma M., Ma Y., Dong Y., … Cui C. (2016). Alterations in brain structure and functional connectivity in alcohol dependent patients and possible association with impulsivity. PLoS One, 11(8), e0161956.
[81]	Weafer J., Baggott M. J., & de Wit H. (2013). Test-retest reliability of behavioral measures of impulsive choice, impulsive action, and inattention. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21(6), 475. doi: 10.1037/a0033659 URL
[82]	Weidlich V. A. (2020). Personality and genetics correlations to risk-taking using quantum decision theory in Balloon Analogue Risk Tasks. Cureus, 12(8), e9923.
[83]	Wei Z., Yang N., Liu Y., Yang L., Wang Y., Han L., … Zhang X. (2016). Resting-state functional connectivity between the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and thalamus is associated with risky decision-making in nicotine addicts. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 1-9. doi: 10.1038/s41598-016-0001-8 URL
[84]	White T. L., Lejuez C. W., & de Wit H. (2008). Test-retest characteristics of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(6), 565. doi: 10.1037/a0014083 pmid: 19086777
[85]	Xu S., Korczykowski M., Zhu S., & Rao H. (2013). Assessment of risk-taking and impulsive behaviors: A comparison between three tasks. Social Behavior and Personality, 41(3), 477. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2013.41.3.477 URL
[86]	Xu S., Liu Q., & Wang C. (2021). Self-reported daily sleep quality modulates the impact of the framing effect on outcome evaluation in decision-making under uncertainty: An ERP study. Neuropsychologia, 157, 107864.
[87]	Xu S., Luo L., Xiao Z., Zhao K., Wang H., Wang C., & Rao H. (2019). High sensation seeking is associated with behavioral and neural insensitivity to increased negative outcomes during decision-making under uncertainty. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 19(6), 1352-1363.
[88]	Xu S., Pan Y., Qu Z., Fang Z., Yang Z., Yang F., … Rao H. (2018). Differential effects of real versus hypothetical monetary reward magnitude on risk-taking behavior and brain activity. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1-9.
[89]	Xu S., Xiao Z., & Rao H. (2019). Hypothetical versus real monetary reward decrease the behavioral and affective effects in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task. Experimental Psychology, 66, 221-230. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000447 URL
[90]	Yang X., Gao M., Shi J., Ye H., & Chen S. (2017). Modulating the activity of the DLPFC and OFC has distinct effects on risk and ambiguity decision-making: A tDCS study. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1417. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01417 URL
[91]	Yu J., Li R., Guo Y., Fang F., Duan S., & Lei X. (2017). Resting-state functional connectivity within medial prefrontal cortex mediates age differences in risk taking. Developmental Neuropsychology, 42(3), 187-197. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2017.1306529 URL
[92]	Yu J., Mamerow L., Lei X., Fang L., & Mata R. (2016). Altered value coding in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in healthy older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, 210.
[93]	Zhang D., & Gu R. (2018). Behavioral preference in sequential decision-making and its association with anxiety. Human Brain Mapping, 39(6), 2482-2499. doi: 10.1002/hbm.24016 URL
[94]	Zhou R., Myung J. I., & Pitt M. A. (2021). The scaled target learning model: Revisiting learning in the balloon analogue risk task. Cognitive Psychology, 128, 101407.