Nudging strategies to promote healthy eating behavior

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2020.02052

Abstract

Abstract:

With respect to interventions for healthy eating behaviors of citizens, the more covert nudging strategies, which focus on influencing intuitive thinking system, have shown their advantages over conventional policies. Based on the unique influencing mechanisms of nudging strategies on healthy diet decisions, the nudging framework comprises four main categories, namely, providing decision information, improving decision options, influencing decision structures and reminding decision directions, which further include nine sub-categories. Considering the disputes over the nudging strategies in practice, the implementation of the nudging strategies should be integrated with conventional policies in China, fully take into consideration the actual conditions in China and the characteristics of Chinese consumers and take full advantages of information technology and big data, to achieve the goal of Healthy China.

Key words: nudge, healthy eating behavior, intervention strategy, health policy

CLC Number:

B849
R155.1

LI Jiajie, YU Tongtong. Nudging strategies to promote healthy eating behavior[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2020, 28(12): 2052-2063.

References 109

[1]	傅鑫媛, 辛自强, 楼紫茜, 高琰. (2019). 基于助推的环保行为干预策略. 心理科学进展, 27(11), 1939-1950.
[2]	耿晓伟, 张峰, 王艳净, 范琳琳, 姚艳. (2018). 健康目标启动降低高热量食物消费. 心理学报, 50(8), 840-847.
[3]	何贵兵, 李纾, 梁竹苑. (2018). 以小拨大: 行为决策助推社会发展. 心理学报, 50(8), 803-813.
[4]	健康中国行动推进委员会. (2019). 健康中国行动(2019-2030年). 2020-02-11取自https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c43b906db1717fd5360cba1aa8114431b80d8ec3.html
[5]	句华. (2017). 助推理论与政府购买公共服务政策创新. 西南大学学报: 社会科学版, 43(2), 74-80.
[6]	李纾. (2016a). 既非 “胡萝卜” 也非 “大棒”: 助推社会发展的一条新捷径. 管理视野, (6), 92-96.
[7]	李纾. (2016b). 决策心理: 齐当别之道. 上海:华东师范大学出版社.
[8]	李彤彤, 赵鹿鸣. (2020. 宏观看待新冠肺炎死亡率, 或在传染病中属于偏弱水平. 2020-02-11取自http://news.sina.com.cn/s/2020-02-05/doc-iimxxste8981579.shtml
[9]	刘欢, 隋晓阳, 黄元娜, 林榕平, 许明星. (2019). 行为经济学在养老储蓄领域的助推应用. 心理科学进展, 27(3), 418-428.
[10]	刘晓鸥, 孙圣民. (2011). 消费理性成瘾, 公共健康与政府行为——基于消费者对碳酸饮料过度消费行为的案例研究. 经济学 (季刊), 11(1), 349-366.
[11]	任洁, 王德文. (2019). 健康治理: 顶层设计, 政策工具与经验借鉴. 天津行政学院学报, 21(3), 86-95.
[12]	桑斯坦, C. (2015) 简化: 政府的未来 (陈丽芳译). 北京:中信出版社.
[13]	原国家卫生计生委(现国家卫生健康委员会). (2015). 图解:中国居民营养与慢性病状况报告(2015). 2020-02-11取自http://www.nhc.gov.cn/jkj/s5879/201506/4505528e65f3460fb88685081ff158a2.shtml
[14]	张书维, 梁歆佚, 岳经纶. (2019). 行为社会政策: “助推”公共福利的实践与探索. 心理科学进展, 27(3), 429-438.
[15]	张书维, 王宇, 周蕾. (2018). 行为公共政策视角下的助推与助力: 殊途同归. 中国公共政策评论, 15(2), 20-38.
[16]	周延风, 张婷. (2019). 助推理论及其应用研究述评与未来展望——行为决策改变的新思路. 财经论丛, 251(10), 94-103.
[17]	朱德米, 李兵华. (2018). 行为科学与公共政策: 对政策有效性的追求. 中国行政管理, 8, 59-64.
[18]	Arrow, K. J., Sen, A., & Suzumura, K. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of social choice and welfare (Vol. 2). Elsevier Science Publishers (North-Holland).
[19]	Axelrod, R. (1986). An evolutionary approach to norms. American Political Science Review, 80(4), 1095-1111. doi: 10.1017/S0003055400185016 URL
[20]	Bang, H. M., Shu, S. B., & Weber, E. U. (2020). The role of perceived effectiveness on the acceptability of choice architecture. Behavioural Public Policy, 4(1), 50-70. doi: 10.1017/bpp.2018.1 URL
[21]	Blumenthal-Barby, J. S., & Burroughs, H. (2012). Seeking better health care outcomes: The ethics of using the “nudge”. The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(2), 1-10. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2011.634481 URL pmid: 22304506
[22]	Bovens, L. (2009). The ethics of nudge. In T. Grüne-Yanoff, S.O. Hansson (Eds.), Preference Change (pp. 207-219). Springer-Verlag. doi: 10.1080/00091383.1977.10569253 URL pmid: 10236160
[23]	Burgess, A. (2012). ‘Nudging’ healthy lifestyles: The UK experiments with the behavioural alternative to regulation and the market. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 3(1), 3-16. doi: 10.1017/S1867299X00001756 URL
[24]	Cadario, R., & Chandon, P. (2017). Which healthy eating nudges work best? A meta-analysis of field experiments. Marketing Science. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2018.1128 doi: 10.1126/science.338.6106.465 URL pmid: 23112308
[25]	Campos, S., Doxey, J., & Hammond, D. (2011). Nutrition labels on pre-packaged foods: A systematic review. Public Health Nutrition, 14(8), 1496-1506. doi: 10.1017/S1368980010003290 URL
[26]	Carroll, K. A., Samek, A., & Zepeda, L. (2018). Food bundling as a health nudge: Investigating consumer fruit and vegetable selection using behavioral economics. Appetite, 121, 237-248. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.11.082 URL pmid: 29137968
[27]	Cecchini, M., & Warin, L. (2016). Impact of food labelling systems on food choices and eating behaviours: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized studies. Obesity Reviews, 17(3), 201-210. doi: 10.1111/obr.12364 URL pmid: 26693944
[28]	Cohen, J. F. W., Richardson, S. A., Cluggish, S. A., Parker, E., Catalano, P. J., & Rimm, E. B. (2015). Effects of choice architecture and chef-enhanced meals on the selection and consumption of healthier school foods: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(5), 431-437. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.3805 URL pmid: 25798990
[29]	Cruwys, T., Bevelander, K. E., & Hermans, R. C. J. (2015). Social modeling of eating: A review of when and why social influence affects food intake and choice. Appetite, 86, 3-18. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.08.035 URL pmid: 25174571
[30]	Dayan, E., & Bar-Hillel, M. (2011). Nudge to nobesity II: Menu positions influence food orders. Judgment and Decision Making, 6(4), 333-342.
[31]	de Wijk, R. A., Maaskant, A. J., Polet, I. A., Holthuysen, N. T., van Kleef, E., & Vingerhoeds, M. H. (2016). An in-store experiment on the effect of accessibility on sales of wholegrain and white bread in supermarkets. PloS One, 11(3), Article e0151915. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151915 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152817 URL pmid: 27031997
[32]	Dolan, P., Hallsworth, M., Halpern, D., King, D., & Vlaev, I. (2010). MINDSPACE: Influencing behavior through public policy. UK: Institute for Government, Cabinet Office. Retrieved from http://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/MINDSPACE.pdf
[33]	Ducrot, P., Julia, C., Méjean, C., Kesse-Guyot, E., Touvier, M., Fezeu, L. K., … Péneau, S. (2016). Impact of different front-of-pack nutrition labels on consumer purchasing intentions: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(5), 627-636. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2015.10.020 URL pmid: 26699246
[34]	Elsbernd, S. L., Reicks, M. M., Mann, T. L., Redden, J. P., Mykerezi, E., & Vickers, Z. M. (2016). Serving vegetables first: A strategy to increase vegetable consumption in elementary school cafeterias. Appetite, 96, 111-115. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.09.001 URL pmid: 26344812
[35]	English, L., Lasschuijt, M., & Keller, K. L. (2015). Mechanisms of the portion size effect. What is known and where do we go from here? Appetite, 88, 39-49. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.11.004 URL pmid: 25447010
[36]	Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255-278. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629 URL pmid: 18154502
[37]	Evans, J. S. B. T., & Stanovich,K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 223-241. doi: 10.1177/1745691612460685 URL pmid: 26172965
[38]	Faith, M. S., Scanlon, K. S., Birch, L. L., Francis, L. A., & Sherry, B. (2004). Parent‐child feeding strategies and their relationships to child eating and weight status. Obesity Research, 12(11), 1711-1722. doi: 10.1038/oby.2004.212 URL pmid: 15601964
[39]	Feeney, J. R., Polivy, J., Pliner, P., & Sullivan, M. D. (2011). Comparing live and remote models in eating conformity research. Eating Behaviors, 12(1), 75-77. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2010.09.007 URL
[40]	Förster, J., Liberman, N., & Friedman, R. S. (2007). Seven principles of goal activation: A systematic approach to distinguishing goal priming from priming of non-goal constructs. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(3), 211-233. doi: 10.1177/1088868307303029 URL pmid: 18453462
[41]	Forwood, S. E., Ahern, A. L., Hollands, G. J., Ng, Y. L., & Marteau, T. M. (2015). Priming healthy eating. You can't prime all the people all of the time. Appetite, 89, 93-102. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.01.018 URL pmid: 25636234
[42]	Freedman, M. R., & Brochado, C. (2010). Reducing portion size reduces food intake and plate waste. Obesity, 18(9), 1864-1866. doi: 10.1038/oby.2009.480 URL pmid: 20035274
[43]	French, S. A., Mitchell, N. R., Wolfson, J., Harnack, L. J., Jeffery, R. W., Gerlach, A. F., … Pentel, P. R. (2014). Portion size effects on weight gain in a free living setting. Obesity, 22(6), 1400-1405. doi: 10.1002/oby.20720 URL
[44]	Friis, R., Skov, L. R., Olsen, A., Appleton, K. M., Saulais, L., Dinnella, C., … Perez-Cueto, F. J. (2017). Comparison of three nudge interventions (priming, default option, and perceived variety) to promote vegetable consumption in a self-service buffet setting. PloS One, 12(5), Article e0176028. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176028 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175811 URL pmid: 28562676
[45]	Gittelsohn, J., & Lee, K. (2013). Integrating educational, environmental, and behavioral economic strategies may improve the effectiveness of obesity interventions. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 35(1), 52-68. doi: 10.1093/aepp/pps044 URL
[46]	Greene, K. N., Gabrielyan, G., Just, D. R., & Wansink, B. (2017). Fruit-promoting smarter lunchrooms interventions: Results from a cluster RCT. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 52(4), 451-458. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2016.12.015 URL pmid: 28214248
[47]	Griffin, M., Sobal, J., & Lyson, T. A. (2009). An analysis of a community food waste stream. Agriculture and Human Values, 26, 67-81. doi: 10.1007/s10460-008-9178-1 URL
[48]	Gue, K. R., & Meller,R. D. (2009). Aisle configurations for unit-load warehouses. IIE Transactions, 41(3), 171-182. doi: 10.1080/07408170802112726 URL
[49]	Hanks, A. S., Just, D. R., Smith, L. E., & Wansink, B. (2012). Healthy convenience: Nudging students toward healthier choices in the lunchroom. Journal of Public Health, 34(3), 370-376. doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fds003 URL
[50]	Hansen, P. G., & Jespersen,A. M. (2013). Nudge and the manipulation of choice: A framework for the responsible use of the nudge approach to behaviour change in public policy. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 4(1), 3-28. doi: 10.1017/S1867299X00002762 URL
[51]	Hansen, P. G., Skov, L. R., Jespersen, A. M., Skov, K. L., & Schmidt, K. (2016). Apples versus brownies: A field experiment in rearranging conference snacking buffets to reduce short-term energy intake. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 19(1), 122-130. doi: 10.1080/15378020.2016.1129227 URL
[52]	Higgs, S. (2015). Social norms and their influence on eating behaviours. Appetite, 86, 38-44. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.021 URL pmid: 25451578
[53]	Hollands, G. J., Shemilt, I., Marteau, T. M., Jebb, S. A., Kelly, M. P., Nakamura, R., … Ogilvie, D. ( 2013). Altering micro-environments to change population health behaviour: Towards an evidence base for choice architecture interventions. BMC Public Health, 13, Article 1218. http://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1218 URL pmid: 24564510
[54]	Hollands, G. J., Shemilt, I., Marteau, T. M., Jebb, S. A., Lewis, H. B., Wei, Y., … Ogilvie, D. (2015). Portion, package or tableware size for changing selection and consumption of food, alcohol and tobacco. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 9, Article CD011045. http://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011045.pub2 doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013628.pub2 URL pmid: 32936947
[55]	Johnson, E. J., Shu, S. B., Dellaert, B. G. C., Fox, D., Goldstein, D. G., Häubl, G., … Weber, E. U. (2012). Beyond nudges: Tools of a choice architecture. Marketing Letters, 23(2), 487-504. doi: 10.1007/s11002-012-9186-1 URL
[56]	Julia, C., Ducrot, P., Péneau, S., Deschamps, V., Méjean, C., Fézeu, L., … Kesse-Guyot, E. ( 2015). Discriminating nutritional quality of foods using the 5-Color nutrition label in the French food market: Consistency with nutritional recommendations. Nutrition Journal, 14(1), Article 100. http://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-015-0090-4
[57]	Just, D. R., & Gabrielyan, G. (2018). Influencing the food choices of SNAP consumers: Lessons from economics, psychology and marketing. Food Policy, 79, 309-317. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.03.003 URL
[58]	Just, D. R., & Hanks,A. S. (2015). The hidden cost of regulation: Emotional responses to command and control. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 97(5), 1385-1399. doi: 10.1093/ajae/aav016 URL
[59]	Just, D., & Price, J. (2013). Default options, incentives and food choices: Evidence from elementary-school children. Public Health Nutrition, 16(12), 2281-2288. doi: 10.1017/S1368980013001468 URL
[60]	Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58(9), 697-720. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697 URL pmid: 14584987
[61]	Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. London: Penguin Books.
[62]	Kraak, V. I., Englund, T., Misyak, S., & Serrano, E. L. (2017). A novel marketing mix and choice architecture framework to nudge restaurant customers toward healthy food environments to reduce obesity in the United States. Obesity Reviews, 18(8), 852-868. doi: 10.1111/obr.12553 URL pmid: 28560794
[63]	Kroese, F. M., Marchiori, D. R., & de Ridder, D. T. (2016). Nudging healthy food choices: A field experiment at the train station. Journal of Public Health, 38(2), e133-e137. doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fdv096 URL pmid: 26186924
[64]	Lange, V. G., & Velamuri,V. K. (2014). Business model innovation in the retail industry: Growth by serving the silver generation. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, 18(4), 310-329. doi: 10.1504/IJEIM.2014.064210 URL
[65]	Levy, D. E., Riis, J., Sonnenberg, L. M., Barraclough, S. J., & Thorndike, A. N. (2012). Food choices of minority and low-income employees: A cafeteria intervention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43(3), 240-248. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2012.05.004 URL
[66]	Lin, Y., Osman, M., & Ashcroft, R. (2017). Nudge: Concept, effectiveness, and ethics. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 39(6), 293-306. doi: 10.1080/01973533.2017.1356304 URL
[67]	Loeb, K. L., Radnitz, C., Keller, K., Schwartz, M. B., Marcus, S., Pierson, R. N., … DeLaurentis, D. (2017). The application of defaults to optimize parents' health-based choices for children. Appetite, 113, 368-375. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.02.039 URL pmid: 28257942
[68]	Loewenstein, G., Brennan, T., & Volpp, K. G. (2007). Asymmetric paternalism to improve health behaviors. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 298(20), 2415-2417. doi: 10.1001/jama.298.20.2415 URL pmid: 18042920
[69]	Maas, J., de Ridder, D. T., de Vet, E., & de Wit, J. B. (2012). Do distant foods decrease intake? The effect of food accessibility on consumption. Psychology & Health, 27(suppl2), 59-73.
[70]	McCluskey, J. J., Mittelhammer, R. C., & Asiseh, F. (2011). From default to choice: Adding healthy options to kids’ menus. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 94(2), 338-343. doi: 10.1093/ajae/aar106 URL
[71]	Miller, G. F., Gupta, S., Kropp, J. D., Grogan, K. A., & Mathews, A. (2016). The effects of pre-ordering and behavioral nudges on National School Lunch Program participants’ food item selection. Journal of Economic Psychology, 55, 4-16. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2016.02.010 URL
[72]	Münscher, R., Vetter, M., & Scheuerle, T. (2016). A review and taxonomy of choice architecture techniques. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 29(5), 511-524. doi: 10.1002/bdm.v29.5 URL
[73]	Oliver, A. (2013). From nudging to budging: Using behavioural economics to inform public sector policy . Journal of Social Policy, Available on CJO 2013. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279413000299 doi: 10.1017/s0047279400017608 URL pmid: 10296720
[74]	Olstad, D. L., Goonewardene, L. A., McCargar, L. J., & Raine, K. D. (2014). Choosing healthier foods in recreational sports settings: A mixed methods investigation of the impact of nudging and an economic incentive. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 11, Article 6. http://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-11-6 doi: 10.1186/s12966-014-0141-9 URL pmid: 25404043
[75]	Olstad, D. L., Vermeer, J., McCargar, L. J., Prowse, R. J., & Raine, K. D. (2015). Using traffic light labels to improve food selection in recreation and sport facility eating environments. Appetite, 91, 329-335. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.057 URL pmid: 25913684
[76]	Osei-Assibey, G., Dick, S., Macdiarmid, J., Semple, S., Reilly, J. J., Ellaway, A., … McNeill, G. (2012). The influence of the food environment on overweight and obesity in young children: A systematic review. BMJ Open, 2, Article e001538. http://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001538 URL pmid: 23242483
[77]	Osman, M. (2016). Nudge: How far have we come? Œconomia-History, Methodology, Philosophy, 6(4), 557-570.
[78]	Papies, E. K. (2016). Health goal priming as a situated intervention tool: How to benefit from nonconscious motivational routes to health behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 10(4), 408-424. doi: 10.1080/17437199.2016.1183506 URL pmid: 27144729
[79]	Payne, C. R., Niculescu, M., Just, D. R., & Kelly, M. P. (2014). Shopper marketing nutrition interventions. Physiology & Behavior, 136, 111-120. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.03.029 URL pmid: 24726388
[80]	Payne, C. R., Niculescu, M., Just, D. R., & Kelly, M. P. (2015). Shopper marketing nutrition interventions: Social norms on grocery carts increase produce spending without increasing shopper budgets. Preventive Medicine Reports, 2, 287-291. doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2015.04.007 URL pmid: 26844084
[81]	Perry, C. L., Bishop, D. B., Taylor, G. L., Davis, M., Story, M., Gray, C., … Harnack, L. (2004). A randomized school trial of environmental strategies to encourage fruit and vegetable consumption among children. Health Education & Behavior, 31(1), 65-76. doi: 10.1177/1090198103255530 URL pmid: 14768658
[82]	Robinson, E., Thomas, J., Aveyard, P., & Higgs, S. (2014). What everyone else is eating: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of informational eating norms on eating behavior. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 114(3), 414-429. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2013.11.009 URL pmid: 24388484
[83]	Rozin, P., Scott, S. E., Dingley, M., Urbanek, J. K., Jiang, H., & Kaltenbach, M. (2011). Nudge to nobesity I: Minor changes in accessibility decrease food intake. Judgment & Decision Making, 6(4), 323-332.
[84]	Saghai, Y. (2013). Salvaging the concept of nudge. Journal of Medical Ethics, 39(8), 487-493. doi: 10.1136/medethics-2012-100727 URL pmid: 23427215
[85]	Schwartz, J., Riis, J., Elbel, B., & Ariely, D. (2012). Inviting consumers to downsize fast-food portions significantly reduces calorie consumption. Health Affairs, 31(2), 399-407. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0224 URL
[86]	Schwartz,M. B. (2007). The influence of a verbal prompt on school lunch fruit consumption: A pilot study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 4, Article 6. http://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-4-6 doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-4-48 URL pmid: 17910754
[87]	Selinger,E., & Whyte,K. P. (2012). Nudging cannot solve complex policy problems. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 3(1), 26-31. doi: 10.1017/S1867299X0000177X URL
[88]	Shah, A. M., Bettman, J. R., Ubel, P. A., Keller, P. A., & Edell, J. A. (2014). Surcharges plus unhealthy labels reduce demand for unhealthy menu items. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(6), 773-789. doi: 10.1509/jmr.13.0434 URL
[89]	Skov, L. R., Lourenco, S., Hansen, G. L., Mikkelsen, B. E., & Schofield, C. (2013). Choice architecture as a means to change eating behaviour in self‐service settings: A systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 14(3), 187-196. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01054.x URL
[90]	Stämpfli, A. E., Stöckli, S., & Brunner, T. A. (2017). A nudge in a healthier direction: How environmental cues help restrained eaters pursue their weight-control goal. Appetite, 110, 94-102. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2016.11.037 URL pmid: 27915080
[91]	Sunstein, C. R. (2014). Why nudge? The politics of libertarian paternalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
[92]	Sunstein, C. R. (2015). Nudges, agency, and abstraction: A reply to critics. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 511-529. doi: 10.1007/s13164-015-0266-z URL
[93]	Sunstein, C. R. (2016). The ethics of influence: Government in the age of behavioral science. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
[94]	Thaler, R. H. (2015). Misbehaving: The making of behavioral economics. New York/London: W. W. Norton & Company.
[95]	Thaler, R. H. (2018). Nudge, not sludge. Science, 361(6401), 431. doi: 10.1126/science.aau9241 URL pmid: 30072515
[96]	Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
[97]	Thiene, M., Scarpa, R., Longo, A., & Hutchinson, W. G. (2018). Types of front of pack food labels: Do obese consumers care? Evidence from Northern Ireland. Food Policy, 80, 84-102. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.09.004 URL
[98]	Thompson, P. B., & Kaplan,D. M. (2014). Encyclopedia of food and agricultural ethics. Dordrecht, Holland: Springer.
[99]	Thorndike, A. N., Riis, J., Sonnenberg, L. M., & Levy, D. E. (2014). Traffic-light labels and choice architecture: Promoting healthy food choices. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 46(2), 143-149. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2013.10.002 URL
[100]	Thorndike, A. N., Sonnenberg, L., Riis, J., Barraclough, S., & Levy, D. E. (2012). A 2-phase labeling and choice architecture intervention to improve healthy food and beverage choices. American Journal of Public Health, 102(3), 527-533. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300391 URL
[101]	van Ittersum, K., & Wansink, B. (2011). Plate size and color suggestibility: The Delboeuf Illusion’s bias on serving and eating behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(2), 215-228. doi: 10.1086/662615 URL
[102]	van Kleef, E., Seijdell, K., Vingerhoeds, M. H., de Wijk, R. A., & van Trijp, H. C. (2018). The effect of a default-based nudge on the choice of whole wheat bread. Appetite, 121, 179-185. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.11.091 URL pmid: 29155046
[103]	van Kleef, E., van den Broek, O., & van Trijp, H. C. M. (2015). Exploiting the spur of the moment to enhance healthy consumption: Verbal prompting to increase fruit choices in a self‐service restaurant. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 7(2), 149-166. doi: 10.1111/aphw.2015.7.issue-2 URL
[104]	Vecchio, R., & Cavallo, C. (2019). Increasing healthy food choices through nudges: A systematic review. Food Quality and Preference, 78, Article 103714. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.05.014
[105]	Vetter, M., & Kutzner, F. (2016). Nudge me if you can - How defaults and attitude strength interact to change behavior. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 1, 8-34. doi: 10.1080/23743603.2016.1139390 URL
[106]	Wansink, B., Kent, R. J., & Hoch, S. J. (1998). An anchoring and adjustment model of purchase quantity decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 35(1), 71-81. doi: 10.1177/002224379803500108 URL
[107]	Wansink, B., & Sobal, J. (2007). Mindless eating: The 200 daily food decisions we overlook. Environment and Behavior, 39(1), 106-123. doi: 10.1177/0013916506295573 URL
[108]	Wansink,B., & van Ittersum, K. (2013). Portion size me: Plate-size induced consumption norms and win-win solutions for reducing food intake and waste. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 19(4), 320-332. doi: 10.1037/a0035053 URL pmid: 24341317
[109]	Wilson, A. L., Buckley, E., Buckley, J. D., & Bogomolova, S. (2016). Nudging healthier food and beverage choices through salience and priming. Evidence from a systematic review. Food Quality and Preference, 51, 47-64. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.02.009 URL