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Moral foreign language effect and its moderating variables: A systematic review and meta-analysis ZHU Lin, LIU Jinru, LI Jing, LIU Conghui Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 32-50.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00032 Abstract （235）            Knowledge map    Individual decisions in the field of moral judgement are often related to "hurting or sacrificing the innocent" and "tolerating immoral behaviors." Previous studies have shown that when presented with the moral decision-making situation within a foreign language context, the individuals will show a stronger utilitarian and a more tolerant moral evaluation tendency compared with the same situation within the native language context. This phenomenon is defined as the moral foreign language effect. The influence of the language context on the moral judgement has been investigated by numerous studies. However, the results were far from consistent. To this end, we used meta-analysis to explore the effect of the language type (native language vs. foreign language) on the individuals' utilitarian tendency in moral judgments, and we analyzed several moderating variables. A total of 19 papers were retrieved from literature, with 46 independent samples, 97 effect sizes and 9672 participants that met the inclusion criteria of the meta-analysis. First, we analyzed the effect of the language type (native language vs. foreign language) on the utilitarian tendency in moral judgments using the ‘metafor' R package. Next, the potential moderation effects of several factors were examined, including the moral dilemmas story type (personal moral dilemmas vs. impersonal moral dilemmas vs. daily moral evaluation situations), sex, scoring method (two-point scoring vs. multi-point scoring) and language family type (same vs. different). In addition, we used Bayesian factor estimation for secondary exploration of the results that had a nonsignificant moderating effect. Our meta-analysis resulted in the following findings. First, the main effect test indicated that the language type has a significant effect on the utilitarian tendency in moral judgment, with a small but stable moral foreign language effect (g = 0.23). Second, the moderation analysis indicated that the moral foreign language effect was influenced by the story type; there was a small but stable effect of the language type for personal moral dilemmas (g = 0.32), but not for impersonal moral dilemmas (g = 0.11) or daily moral evaluation situations (g = 0.12). The foreign language effect under impersonal moral dilemmas was affected by the scoring method; a significant effect was found under multi-point scoring (g = 0.27), but not under two-point scoring (g = 0.05). On the other hand, there was no significant moderating effect for the sex or language family type. In addition, Bayesian analysis showed only moderate evidence for the absence of moderating effect regarding the factors of sex, scoring methods and language family type. The stability of these conclusions can be further verified in future research. In summary, this study used meta-analysis to systematically explore the robustness and influencing factors of foreign language effects in moral judgment and answered the disputes about the stability of the moral foreign language effect. The results showed a small but relatively stable effect of the language type on the utilitarian orientation in moral judgment. We analyzed the moderating effects of multiple variables, including variables that have not been well-considered in previous studies, such as the scoring methods (two-point scoring vs. multi-point scoring). Our work did not only find the moderating effect of the type of moral dilemmas, but it also revealed the potential impact of the scoring method on the effect size. This provides certain enlightenment and guidance for future empirical studies when selecting the experimental materials and statistical methods. Finally, we used a variety of data processing methods to increase the robustness of the results. For example, robust variance estimation (RVE) was used to control the correlations between dependent effect sizes and compare our results with those of traditional meta-analysis, so as to understand how the results of the meta-analysis are influenced by the correlations between multiple dependent effect sizes. Related Articles | Metrics

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Understanding mechanisms of prediction error cost in Chinese reading for older adults LI Lin, ZHAO Sainan, ZHANG Lijuan, WANG Jingxin Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 1-14.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00001 Abstract （316）            Knowledge map    An important question for research on reading across the lifespan concerns whether mechanisms of cognitive processing undergo only quantitative changes or also qualitative changes with aging. To process written language effectively, readers use their existing knowledge to make predictive inferences about linguistic information. Quite often this will facilitate the processing of newly acquired information but will sometimes incur a processing cost due to predictive error. As Older adults appear to rely more heavily on lexical prediction during reading (Zhao et al., 2019, 2021). However, it is currently unknown whether, like young adults, they experience a processing cost due to predictive error, and whether the magnitude of this cost differs across age adult groups. Accordingly, the present research aims to understand the processing consequence of predictive error in both young and older adults, using methods that can shed light on both the behavioral and neural bases of these effects. This will be achieved using novel co-registration methods that synchronize the recording of electroencephalographic (EEG) signals with eye movements, so that behavioral and neural indices of language processing can be acquired simultaneously, in real-time, during natural reading. In particular, this approach will enable the analysis of fixated-related potentials (FRPs), which are averaged EEG waveforms time-locked to a fixation on a target word in a sentence during normal reading. Study 1 will manipulate whether a target word is predictable from the prior sentence context, using contexts in which the target word is predictable, ones in which it is unpredictable, and neutral contexts containing an unpredictable word. Crucially, comparisons of an unpredictable word in neutral compared to constraining contexts will provide a measure of prediction error, which is the cost incurred when the target word is unpredicted in a constraining context. The study will investigate the behavioral and neural correlates of this prediction error using a combination of eye movement measures and FRPs for target words. Moreover, by investigating age differences in these effects (i.e., for young compared to older adults) the study will reveal whether this prediction error differs across adult age groups. Study 2 will test these effects further by examining both the contribution to the prediction error cost of parafoveal information availability and individual differences in visual, cognitive and linguistic abilities. To examine the contribution of these individual differences, we will comprehensively assess the visual, cognitive and linguistic abilities of young and older adult participants prior their taking part in experiments. We will obtain information about participants' educational background, vocabulary knowledge and recent reading experience to match participants in terms of formal educational experience and to obtain indices of linguistic experience. In addition, we will assess processing speed, working memory, and inhibition as measures of cognitive capabilities. The data obtained will be used for the linear mixed-effects modelling of Study 3. Experiment 1 will use the boundary paradigm to investigate age differences in the prediction error cost when parafoveal information is available or not. The aim of this experiment is to establish whether limiting the availability of parafoveal information about an upcoming word differentially impacts lexical prediction by young and older adults. Experiment 2 will use masking text paradigm to investigate the aging effects on prediction error cost under high or low working memory load conditions. The aim of this experiment is to explore the effect of working memory load on prediction processing mechanism of young and older readers. Finally, in Experiment 3, the older adult participants will be divided into good and poor reading skill groups to examine whether there is a difference in the prediction error cost for older participants with good and poor reading skills as compared to skilled young adult readers. This will reveal how reading skills mediates predictive processing by older adults. Study 3 will use linear mixed-effects modelling and data-mining methods. All relevant factors will be included in the model analysis as covariates to investigate their effects on the prediction processing of older readers. Moreover, survival analysis and distribution analysis will be adopted to investigate the time course and individual differences of the above-mentioned effects (using data from Study 1 and 2). The findings from these studies will provide important insights into the nature of effects of cognitive aging and individual differences in visual, cognitive and linguistic abilities on neural and cognitive indices of word prediction in reading, and will form the basis for future models of these effects in Chinese reading. Moreover, the findings will shed light on the contribution of parafoveal processing, memory load, and reading skill on the predictive abilities of older adult readers. 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A new type of mental health assessment using artificial intelligence technique JIANG Liming, TIAN Xuetao, REN Ping, LUO Fang Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 157-167.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00157 Abstract （571）            Knowledge map    The application of artificial intelligence and big data mining technology in the field of mental health has promoted the development of intelligent mental health assessment. Intelligent mental health assessment entails the application of artificial intelligence technology in acquiring and analyzing data and modeling the relationship between behavioral features and mental health problems. Intelligent mental health assessment has broadened the forms of data and the analysis methods of traditional mental health assessment, enabling researchers to obtain multi-modal data based on more simulated situations and achieve more efficient and accurate assessments. At present, researchers mainly carry out mental health assessments based on social media data, smart device data, video game data, and wearable device data to explore various features related to mental health and build predictive models. Social media data mainly refer to the text content posted by users on social media, which is widely used in psychological assessment. Researchers have explored text features related to mental health. Foreign researchers mainly predict users' mental health conditions based on the contents posted on platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. Domestic researchers mostly rely on Weibo and other platforms to conduct related research. Smartphones and other devices record individual daily behavioral data, including application software use, communication, location movement (based on GPS), etc. These behavioral data provided effective information for predicting the psychological characteristics of individuals. Besides, with the widespread use of smartphones and other mobile devices, collecting audio and video data has become more convenient. Researchers can extract features such as actions, voices, and expressions to achieve an immediate and automatic evaluation of participants' mental health. Video game data refers to the log data of the player during the game. It contains a wealth of behavioral performance information of the individual in the virtual environment. Researchers can evaluate the individual's abilities and psychological characteristics based on the data. Game-based assessment is mainly used to assess individual abilities and cognitive impairment. However, there are few studies on mental health assessment based on games, only some assessments of the positive personality. Mental health problems are often accompanied by obvious physiological reactions. Researchers use wearable devices to collect physiological indicators such as brain electricity, eye movements, heart rate, and skin temperature for mental health monitoring. Researchers use EEG data and eye movement data to identify mental health problems related to emotions and attention. Indicators of skin temperature and heart rate reflect the individual's mood and stress state and therefore have the potential to predict the level of individual mental health. The future research directions of intelligent mental health assessment mainly include five aspects. First, previous research on intelligent mental health assessment has often used data-driven methods to explore features and construct predicting models, which is hard to explain the complex relationship between behavioral indicators and latent mental health state. Therefore, further improvement of pertinence and refinement is demanded. Researchers should design tasks based on psychological theories, carry out meaningful feature extraction, and gradually refine from rough dichotomous diagnosis to continuous and typed diagnosis. Second, unsupervised data mining is difficult to ensure the validity and interpretability of assessment. To carry out effective assessment and reduce errors in the new simulated environment, the task design of intelligent mental health assessment should be designed based on the evidence center. Third, the current intelligent mental health assessment mainly uses the indicators in the computer field, and the relevant research considering the reliability and validity is very rare. Researchers should select prediction models based on specific tasks and test the generalization and stability of prediction models in different datasets and scenarios. Fourth, different data sources and features have unique advantages. Researchers could obtain multi-modal data for modeling and analysis with the application of the advanced technology of artificial intelligence. Finally, privacy protection and ethical issues are essential for intelligent mental health assessment. Subjects should be notified before data acquisition and use. Related Articles | Metrics

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Moral injury: A review from the perspective of psychology AI Pan, DAI Yan Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 168-178.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00168 Abstract （182）            Knowledge map    Moral injury refers to the long-lasting psychological, biological, spiritual, behavioral and social impact on an individual after the exposure to morally injurious events, which entail “perpetrating, failing to prevent, bearing witness to, or learning about acts that transgress deeply held moral beliefs and expectations” (Litz et al., 2009). Since Litz et al. (2009) redefined this concept from the perspective of psychology, moral injury has attracted extensive attention in the fields of psychology, ethics, psychiatry, and sociology. The present article reviews and summarizes the concept, relevant mechanisms, measurements, and interventions of moral injury and offer recommendations for future research. We first review the background of moral injury. Moral injury can be traced back to survivor guilt, which has long been regarded as one of the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. However, Litz et al.(2009) pointed out that moral injury and post-traumatic stress disorder are two different concepts, and Shay(2014) listed the five differences between moral injury and post-traumatic stress disorder in detail. Next, we review the mechanisms of moral injury. Under the influence of individual and social factors, potentially morally injurious events that severely violate an individual's moral code can lead to cognitive dissonance and intrapsychic conflict, and eventually produce lasting shame, guilt, and anxiety. In addition, different types of potentially morally injurious events may lead to different types of moral injury, but the specific mechanism is still unclear. Self-oriented events (e.g., committing a crime, failing to prevent a crime, etc.) are more likely to result in negative internal emotions and cognitions (e.g., guilt, shame, inability to forgive oneself), whereas other-oriented events (e.g., witnessing an act of violence, betrayal by a trusted person) are more likely to lead to negative external emotions and cognitions (e.g., anger, loss of trust, inability to forgive).Third, we summarizes the existing moral injury scales, with a focus on the scope of application and each scale's advantages and disadvantages. These scales can be divided into two categories according to their contents, with one group assessing moral injury symptoms alone, and another assessing both the moral injury events and symptoms. Researchers or clinicians can choose these scales according to their practical needs. Moreover, current interventions for moral injury include Cognitive Behavior Therapy, CBT-based Adaptive Disclosure Therapy, CPT-based Spiritually Integrated Cognitive Processing Therapy, etc. While being commonly used in the treatment of PTSD, those therapies are equally effective in treating the core symptoms of moral injury. We concluded this article with limitations of existing research and suggestions for future research. Moral injury events and moral injury outcomes need to be further distinguished, moral injury mechanisms need to be further studied, and the diagnostic criteria of moral injury need to be established. Researchers also need to pay attention to the differences of moral standards in different cultures, expand research on moral injury to more groups, and widen the application of research on moral injury. Related Articles | Metrics

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Random intercept latent transition analysis (RI-LTA): Separating the between-subject variation from the within-subject variation WEN Congcong, ZHU Hong Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (10): 1773-1782.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01773 Abstract （405）            Knowledge map    Traditional latent transition analysis (LTA) is usually done using single-level modeling, but can also be viewed as a two-level modeling from a multi-level perspective. In 2020, Muthén and Asparouhov proposed a so-called random intercept latent transition analysis (RI-LTA) model which separates between-subject variation from within-subject variation. By integrating a random intercept factor, latent class transitions are represented on the within level, whereas the between level captures the variability across subjects. The random intercept factor f is the most important. If the factor loadings on the random intercept factor are large, this indicates that the item probabilities are large and thus the cases have large differences on these items. From this perspective, RI-LTA can be viewed as absorbing the measurement non-invariance of the model. Due to large item differences, the different latent classes are easy to distinguish. These differences are absorbed by the random intercept factor but are not set to influence the latent class variables. Therefore, the off-diagonal values of the transition probability matrix are larger. In traditional LTA, large differences across classes are not absorbed by the random intercept factor, which leads to smaller off-diagonal but larger diagonal values of the transition probability matrix. Performing RI-LTA in Mplus software can be done in three to four steps. First, implementing LCA across different time points; second, implementing traditional LTA and RI-LTA; third, saving the parameter estimates obtained in the second step and using them as population values to do a Monte Carlo simulation study; fourth, in the event of previous knowledge or existing applications, one may include covariates or distal outcomes in the model. Researchers can also perform multiple-group analysis, Markov chain mover-stayer analysis, multi-level RI-LTA, or longitudinal factor analysis to have deeper insight into the data. In the current study, a two-wave longitudinal data collection from undergraduates attending in the year 2016 at a research-oriented university was used to demonstrate how to implement RI-LTA in Mplus. The first three steps used were as described in the previous paragraph. For the fourth step, we performed a multiple-group analysis and investigated the interaction effects by including a “type of university enrolment” covariate. Results showed that students of the class labeled “strong intrinsic and extrinsic motivation” class tended to switch to “strong intrinsic motivation but low extrinsic motivation” class and “low intrinsic and extrinsic motivation” class at a 33.0% transition probability of staying in the original class with RI-LTA analysis, while these students tended to stay in the original class at a 68.9% staying transition probability with traditional LTA analysis. This indicated that RI-LTA avoided overestimation on the transition probabilities of students staying in the original class and allowed for clearer interpretation of the data. The RI-LTA model was shown to be better than the traditional LTA model in this situation. By including a “type of university enrolment” covariate, the multiple-group analysis indicated that measurement invariance should be established. Most of the regression coefficients of latent classes on covariate were not significant except c1#1 on dummy2, which was significant at a value of -2.364. This indicated that students who were enrolled via the independent admission examinations and endorsed the “low intrinsic and extrinsic motivation” class were fewer than the recommended students We also found that the interaction effects of the covariate and c1 on c2 were not significant. Thus, a more parsimonious measurement invariant multiple-group analysis including a covariate but without interaction effect model should be chosen. Future research could use Monte Carlo simulation studies to investigate the applicability of RI-LTA, for example by manipulating sample sizes, numbers of indicators, latent classes, and time points. Inspired by multi-level modeling, the implementation of multi-level RI-LTA in statistical software should also be explored further. Related Articles | Metrics

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Intensive longitudinal data analysis: Models and application ZHENG Shufang, ZHANG Lijin, QIAO Xinyu, PAN Junhao Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (11): 1948-1969.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01948 Abstract （264）            Knowledge map    In the fields of psychology, education, and clinical science, researchers have devoted increasing attention to the intraindividual dynamics of behaviors, minds, and treatment effects over time, making personalized modeling a growing concern. Traditional cross-sectional and longitudinal studies only have a few measurement time points for each individual, which is not suitable for studying intraindividual dynamics. Intensive longitudinal design collects a set of measures from individuals at multiple time points with higher frequency over longer periods. With its strengths in more immediate, accurate, and authentic assessments, this design is more suitable to investigate the dynamics and mechanisms of intraindividual processes. With the development of mobile phones and other mobile devices, researchers can conveniently collect intensive longitudinal data for various aspects of psychology, including individual emotion, personality, cognition, and behavior patterns. The intensive longitudinal design has recently become one of the most prominent and promising approaches in psychological research, but most of these studies still relied on traditional analyzing methods. We first reviewed a conventional method of intensive longitudinal data analysis, the multilevel linear model (MLM), and discussed its limitations in analyzing intensive longitudinal data. We then introduced the principles, empirical applications, strengths, and weaknesses of two advanced modeling methods, dynamic structural equation model (DSEM) and group iterative multiple model estimation (GIMME). DSEM is a top-down approach of modeling intensive longitudinal data while GIMME is a bottom-up one, both being implemented in commonly used software. DSEM is one of the most promising methods for intensive longitudinal modeling and can be regarded as a multilevel extension of the dynamic factor model (DFM). It combines the strengths of various modeling approaches, including multilevel modeling, time-series modeling, structural equational model (SEM), and time-varying effects modeling (TVEM). GIMME is a dynamic network method initially proposed for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data analysis and has recently been applied to intensive longitudinal data analysis. It combines individual- and group-level information to estimate network models at both levels, bridging nomothetic (population) and idiographic (individual) approaches to intensive longitudinal data analysis. By introducing these two advanced modeling methods, the current review can help deepen the understanding of the top-down approach and bottom-up approach and clarify their strengths and weaknesses in the intensive longitudinal data analysis. To help empirical researchers better understand the modeling of DSEM and GIMME and show the advantages of the two models compared with MLM, we provided a tutorial on how to analyze the intensive longitudinal data with the three models (i.e., MLM, DSEM, and GIMME), respectively. We presented the analyzing processes step by step and explained how to interpret the results of these models accordingly. By comparing the output results of the three models, the current review summarized the characteristics of each model. The corresponding Mplus and R codes were provided in the appendixes. Along with the three modeling methods mainly introduced in the current review, we also provided a general introduction of other common modeling methods in the intensive longitudinal data analysis. The current review summarized the popular models in the intensive longitudinal data analysis on their strengths and weaknesses and guided researchers to select suitable modeling methods in different situations. The current review contributes to the development and application of the advanced methods of intensive longitudinal data analysis and helps researchers better understand the dynamic process behind the intensive longitudinal data. Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of trust in technology and trust in leadership on the adoption of new technology from employee's perspective XU Yi, LIU Yixuan Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (10): 1711-1723.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01711 Abstract （244）            Knowledge map    In today's knowledge-based economy, new technology adoption is crucial for companies to increase their core competitiveness. The success of new technology diffusion in enterprises depends on employees' trust in new technologies to overcome risks and uncertainties surrounding new technology. Although many scholars recognize the positive role of trust in the adoption of new technology, the extant literature lacks empirical evidence and theoretical underpinning. To fill the gap, we aim to explore how trust in technology and leadership affects employees' decision to adopt new technology through four different studies. Further, we introduce perceived risk and technology self-efficacy as mediators to explore the underlying mechanisms. In study 1, we validate the measurement of trust in technology with functionality, reliability, and helpfulness as three antecedent factors. The positive effects of trust in technology and trust in leadership on employees' new technology adoption are examined through an experiment. In study 2, we collect employees' data within organizations. Perceived risk and technology usefulness are added into the model to explain the relationship between trust in technology, trust in leadership, and new technology adoption from the employees' perspective. In study 3, we first refine the measurement of technology self-efficacy. Then, through an experiment, we manipulate the trust in technology (High, Low, Control) and measure employees' technology self-efficacy and new technology adoption. We propose that trust in technology can increase technological self-efficacy and further facilitate employees' new technology adoption. In study 4, we examine the contextual effects of industries' backgrounds and organizational cultures. We suggest that in high-tech industries, trust in technology could have a greater effect on employees' adoption of new technology. In addition, organizational culture could moderate the effects of trust. In particular, collectivistic organizational culture could moderate the effects of trust in leadership, while individualistic organizational culture could moderate the effects of trust in technology. Overall, the current research constructs a theoretical model and extends our understanding of employees' adoption of new technology. First, it investigates factors that affect new technology adoption from the employees' perspective with consideration of both individual and contextual factors. We propose employees' technological self-efficacy as individual differences and organizational culture and industry background as contextual factors that equally matters. Second, the current study clearly identifies trust in new technological adoption processes in organizations, as both trust in technology and trust in leadership. We further analyze the effects of the two types of trust and the underlying mechanisms. This enriches the literature of the influence of trust and its mechanism in new technology adoption. Third, we suggest that technological self-efficacy can explain the mechanism of trust in technology, which could lay the foundation for future research of trust in technology. Lastly, this study has managerial implications. Based on our findings, effective management strategies can be implemented to support new technologies integration. Related Articles | Metrics

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Telepsychology: Applications, advantages, and challenges JIN Yuchang, ZHANG Zheng, ZHENG Peixuan, AN Junxiu Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 141-156.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00141 Abstract （91）            Knowledge map    Telepsychology service can allow experienced psychological service providers to quickly shift their attention to the places that need them most at any time. As an example, for the mental health problems during the current COVID-19 pandemic, telepsychology service enables psychiatrists to offer immediate help, and to improve the efficiency of psychological service. China's telepsychology service has been in its early times until the COVID-19 pandemic that enforces self-quarantine for the majority of the population. In this process, two key problems have also been exposed: first, without standard norms, there is only some consensus in the industry put forward by the psychological community to refer to, which has limited authority and binding force; Second, most of the telepsychology providers in China are not professionally trained, and the traditional face-to-face intervention technology obviously cannot be conducted to provides distance service. After combing the previous telepsychology service research, we found that counselors, treatment methods and remote service methodologies are the three most important factors in the development of telepsychology service. We then creatively established a visitor-centered telepsychology service application model, which emphasizes the comprehensive role of counselors, treatment methods and remote service methodologies in telepsychology service. When visitors request telepsychology services, the interaction between factors and the interaction between factors and visitors affect the therapeutic effect of telepsychology services. Artificial intelligence also plays an important role in improving telepsychology service. It can be utilized in providing remote mental health assistance, participating in face-to-face treatment, assisting counselors in remote intervention, etc. All applied artificial intelligence techniques are combined with different telepsychology service situations, to continuously optimize the psychological service process and improve the quality of psychological service. At present, the advantages of telepsychology service are reflected in three aspects: effectiveness, convenience, and economy. Firstly, the intervention of telepsychology service on mental health problems is practical and effective, and the treatment quality is equivalent to the traditional face-to-face mental health service. For psychological practitioners who live in remote areas and engage in psychological counseling, the convenience of telepsychology services has brought solutions to their concerns of counseling and visiting relationship. Compared with traditional face-to-face psychological counseling, it is easier for visitors, psychological service staff and psychological counselors in telepsychology service to coordinate. When formulating the psychological counseling program, the place and time that visitors can make an appointment are more flexible, which can improve the efficiency of psychological counseling and reduce the waiting time. However, there are still challenges in three aspects: acceptance, privacy, and adaptability. Psychological service providers' acceptance of telepsychology service depends on their understanding of its effectiveness, flexibility and convenience and their expectation of service quality. At the same time, privacy security is also a concern that telepsychology services need to pay attention to. Consulting institutions need to establish protection protocols for customers' privacy and remind them to pay attention to their privacy in an eye-catching position on the home page of the institutions' website. With the gradual promotion of 5G technology, the key methodology of mental health care in the future are likely to include video conferencing, intelligent mobile devices, cloud computing, etc. This emerging technology provides unlimited development prospects for limited mental health services. Related Articles | Metrics

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From solicitation to responses: Managers' roles in employee voice behavior chain SHI Lixiaoyun, ZHU Yue, DUAN Jinyun Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 206-215.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00206 Abstract （117）            Knowledge map    As an important form of employee engagement in organizational decision-making, voice has an unignorable influence on employees themselves, managers and organizations. Since Hirschman raised the concept of voice, scholars have contributed to exploring the antecedents and consequences of employee voice, managerial evaluation and endorsement, as well as voice solicitation. Moreover, accumulating attention has been paid to the managerial roles in promoting employee voice and amplifying the positive effects of voice. However, research on managerial roles in voice remains unsystematic and leaves lots of issues to be addressed. Based on Input-Process-Output (IPO) model, we summarize managerial roles in the voice process, as well as their premises and outcomes. At first, we integrate voice solicitation, employee voice, and managers' reactions toward voice (i.e., managerial endorsement and voice/voicer evaluation) into a comprehensive concept, entitled as voice behavior chain. Voice behavior chain reflects the Process component of the IPO model and portraits managerial roles in the voice contexts. In the voice behavior chain, as initiators, managers consult employees about their work-related ideas and opinions, which can facilitate employee voice. Then, as reactors, managers would decide whether to endorse employee voice or not, and meanwhile, they also evaluate voice and corresponding voicers. However, it is notable that voice behavior chain could be incomplete; that is, except for employee voice, neither of the managerial roles is a must to constitute the chain. The order of the elements within the behavior chain may also change under certain circumstances. Moreover, we provide fine-grained arguments about the distinctiveness and connections between voice solicitation and employee voice and between managerial endorsement and voice/voicer evaluation. We also conclude that in the IPO model, voice behavior chain shares similar Input and Output components (i.e., similar antecedents and consequences), which are across individual-level, team-level and organizational-level. Regarding the Input component, managers' affective states, openness toward change, motivations, self-regulatory resources, self-efficacy, and face threat directly influence their performance in voice behavior chain. Managerial endorsement and evaluation also depend on employees' communication skills, credibility and expertise. Team-level (e.g., power distance, leader-member exchange, goal consistency and the involvement of third party) and organizational-level factors (e.g., change climate and voice norms) can also activate voice behavior chain. Since researchers tend to adopt self-regulatory theory or image/ego threat theory to trace the sources of voice behavior chain, we call for further studies to consider other potential theoretical explanations and input factors, such as managers' attributions. Regarding the Output component, voice behavior chain may have effects on individual perceived organizational support, organizational commitment, performance and promotion. It also serves as a catalyze to promote team performance and problem-solving skills and to build organizational creative climate. However, the managerial roles cannot be limited in strengthening the effects of employee voice. For instance, managerial solicitation may induce managers' emotional exhaustion if their proactive behaviors aren't followed by employee voice and support. Drawing on the IPO model in the voice context, we emphasize the managerial roles in voice behavior chain. Thereby this study comprehensively incorporates the existing literature, identifies important issues neglected by previous research and sheds light on future studies. Researchers need to be more scrupulous of the application of the related theory when conducting cross-cultural research. Also, the constructs and dimensions of the behavior elements can be explored furtherly, and we are looking forward to more objective measurements of managerial roles. Last but not least, the research on managerial roles in voice behavior chain can be enriched by investigating spillover effects and corresponding mechanisms. We hope this review can make theoretical and practical contributions by integrating those scattered topics and guiding managers to facilitate and respond to employee voice efficiently. Related Articles | Metrics

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Attentional disengagement in autism spectrum disorders GAN Jiaqun, WANG Enguo Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 129-140.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00129 Abstract （114）            Knowledge map    Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a kind of neurodevelopmental disorder that presents in childhood. Attentional disengagement is an essential part of the attentional orientation network. It refers to the process of disengaging attention from the original object to another one during an attention shift. In early childhood, the ability to engage and disengage attention is necessary for the development of social communication. Atypical patterns of disengagement may have adverse implications for emotional regulation, orienting, joint attention, and other abilities directly associated with socio-emotional functioning. The attentional disengagement suggests holds that early impairment of the attentional disengagement in ASD could substantially affect the development of the perception and cognitive capacity, which could then ultimately escalate into a number of impairments within the core clinical symptoms of ASD. Many studies have shown that high-risk infants (high-risk by virtue of having an older sibling diagnosed with ASD) who are later diagnosed with ASD have impairments in attentional disengagement at an early age, and some researchers believe that attentional disengagement deficits are an early behavioral marker for the diagnosis of autism in the future. Therefore, investigating the developmental characteristics and cognitive neural mechanisms of attentional disengagement in ASD individuals has practical significance for exploring the etiology, early diagnosis, and intervention of ASD. However, studies using the gap-overlap paradigm resulted in controversial findings regarding the abnormal attentional disengagement ability in individuals with ASD. Longitudinal studies of early high-risk infants had shown that individuals with ASD exhibited difficulty in attentional disengagement before being diagnosed. The ability of attentional disengagement in infancy could predict the development of ASD later in life. The more difficult the attentional disengagement, the more likely the development of ASD. Studies of older children, adolescents, and adults with ASD had yielded mixed results. Studies found slower, faster, and no group differences in the latency of attentional disengagement in individuals with ASD compared to those in the control groups. These inconsistent results may indicate that the attentional disengagement hypothesis cannot fully explain the development of attentional disengagement in ASD. Impairments in attentional disengagement for individuals with ASD may not emerge in the first year of life and may not continue into adulthood. This review summarizes the controversial research on the attentional disengagement of individuals with ASD in gap-overlap tasks and its relationship with the clinical symptoms of ASD. It is possible that the participants' characteristics, the research methods, and the stimulus properties are the main factors affecting attentional disengagement. This neural mechanism may involve the oculomotor nervous system, the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the cerebellum, and the corpus callosum. Additionally, based on previous studies, this paper proposes several possible trajectories for the development of attentional disengagement in individuals with ASD, that enrich the theoretical research in ASD. Finally, the future research directions of attentional disengagement in ASD are prospected. The evidence of inconsistent results in attentional disengagement in ASD individuals also underscores the importance of future research aimed at establishing whether there is an ASD-specific disengagement impairment. Future research should focus on research of brain mechanisms to map the trajectory of attentional disengagement in ASD over time. It is not only necessary to conduct a prospective longitudinal study on high-risk infants with ASD but also to consider the effects of participant characteristics, the heterogeneity of ASD, stimulus properties, and variability of measurement indexes and research methods on the results of attentional disengagement comprehensively, as well as further clarify its role in the early prediction and recognition of autism. Furthermore, other behavioral manifestations or early risk markers should be combined for comprehensive diagnosis and identification, so as to develop targeted early intervention strategies and programs for high-risk infants. Related Articles | Metrics

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Moral intuition is moral but not objective YUAN Xiaojing, LIU Chang Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (11): 2083-2090.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.02083 Abstract （123）            Knowledge map    Investigating the subjectivity of moral intuition helps guide people to better deal with moral disputes. This article prioritizes a summary of the background for moral dilemmas, based on which the relationship between moral intuition and emotional factors. With an emphasis on its supportive evidence, it further explains the subjectivity of moral intuition with the Modular Myopia Hypothesis. One of the research hotspots of contemporary moral psychology is to use “the Trolley problem” thought experiment to explore how people would make moral decisions when facing a dilemma. Brain imaging and neuropathology research evidence show that the emotional response caused by the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala affect people's moral judgments. In the moral dilemma, moral intuition leads to deontological judgments, and moral reasoning leads to utilitarian judgments. The research on the Trolley Problem identified that personal force and means/side effects are two important factors affecting people's intuitive judgment, but only the combination of these two factors would produce a stable impact. With the harm occurs as a mere side effect of personal force, it is relatively morally acceptable. So is when harm is used as a means to achieve a greater good, with no personal force. Nevertheless, harming as a means to achieve a goal with personal force is considered to be less acceptable than the previous ones. These studies show that moral intuition is strongly subjective. In the Trolley Problem, moral intuition is highly vigilant to the use of personal force and intentional harm, but less sensitive to harm caused by personal force or side effects. Researcher proposed Modular Myopia Hypothesis under the framework of dual processing theory to explain the impact of personal force, means, and side effects on moral intuition. The hypothesis believes that there is a cognitive subsystem present in the human brain. It is a “module” that monitors our planned behavior and sound an emotional alert when it detects a harmful event in an action plan. However, this action-plan inspector is a relatively simple, “single-channel” system that is not able to keep track of multiple causal chains simultaneously. Therefore, when people intended to harm others to achieve a goal, the harm plan is located on the primary causal chain, the monitoring mechanism in the cognitive subsystem can detect and release an emotional alarm bell, alert to harmful behaviors. By contrast, if the harm is caused as a side effect, the harm is located on the secondary causal chain. Due to the limitation of the cognitive resources of the monitoring and reviewing system, the harmful side effect escapes monitoring, failing to trigger emotional alarms, as the system is “myopic”, unable to recognize the harm caused by side effects. Modular Myopia Hypothesis shows that in similar moral situations, seemingly irrelevant ethical factors may become the key to trigger people's emotional alarms in the brain, leading to completely different judgments and thus reducing the reliability of moral intuition. Without moral intuition as an objective reminder, one should not just rely on intuition as the sole basis for action in the face of moral disputes in real life. Related Articles | Metrics

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Cognitive neural mechanisms underlying the impact of oxytocin on fear acquisition and extinction FENG Pan, YANG Ke, FENG Tingyong Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (2): 365-374.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00365 Abstract （176）            Knowledge map    Fear is a biologically adaptive response to environmental threats, and fear learning plays a key role in adaptive function. However, maladaptive fear learning underlies emotional disorders, such as anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Together with the development of cognitive neuroscience and the integration of multidisciplinary research, the study on the cognitive neural mechanism of fear has become a hot topic in the field of emotion. Using the classical fear conditioning paradigm, researchers have identified the brain circuits of fear learning and extinction. Specifically, extensive imaging researches have revealed several key regions involved in fear acquisition, including the amygdala, insula, dorsal anterior cingulate (dACC) and thalamus. Moreover, the amygdala, hippocampus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) served key roles in fear memory consolidation and reconsolidation, and the amygdala, hippocampus, vmPFC, and dACC are required for fear extinction. Cumulative evidence has suggested that oxytocin plays a crucial role in the process of fear acquisition, fear consolidation and fear extinction. Therefore, firstly, we summarized the paradigms of fear acquisition and fear extinction as well as the cognitive neural mechanisms of fear acquisition and fear extinction based on the fingdings of corresponding meta-analyses. Secondly, we focused on the cognitive neural mechanisms underlying the impact of oxytocin on fear acquisition and fear extinction. Next, we summarized the neurobiological circuits of oxytocin influence on fear emotion processing. Finally, we prospected the future researches on the cognitive neural mechanisms underlying the impact of oxytocin on fear processing. The present study sheds insights into the cognitive neural mechanisms underlying the impact of oxytocin on fear processing. Moreover, the present study provides an potential treatment for the fear-related disorders. Oxytocin has been shown to facilitate fear acquisition as it affects brain activity in several regions including amygdala, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyrus, insula and hippocampus, as well as the functional connectivity between them. Oxytocin also enhances fear extinction by regulating amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex activity, as well as enhancing the functional connectivity between prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Furthermore, oxytocin can regulate the activity of the amygdala, anterior cingulate gyrus, insula, hippocampus, vmPFC and other fear-related brain regions, thus affecting the processes of fear acquisition and extinction. Specifically, cumulative evidence has indicated that intranasal oxytocin attenuates amygdala (hyper)activity and enhances functional coupling of the amygdala with the vmPFC and hippocampus, resulting in increased top-down control over the fear response. In addition, intranasal oxytocin has also been found to attenuate amygdala—brainstem connectivity and to change activity and connectivity in nodes of the salience network (i.e., insula and dACC). Furthermore, oxytocin administration may enhance social behavior through modulating the hypothalamus—pituitary—adrenal (HPA) axis and autonomic nervous system (ANS) function, which may provide a potential treatment for the fear-related disorders. However, it should be noted that the dose, time and location of oxytocin injection might have different effects on the processes of fear acquisition and extinction. Future studies should focus on gender differences, neural network underlying the impact of oxytocin on fear consolidation and reconsolidation and the pathological study examining oxytocin effect on fear emotion processing to better reveal the cognitive neural mechanisms underlying the impact of oxytocin on. Related Articles | Metrics

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The theory and application of the Emotions as Social Information (EASI) Model LIU Xiaoyu, FU Jingyu Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 188-205.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00188 Abstract （158）            Knowledge map    The Emotions as Social Information (EASI) model posits that emotional expressions exert interpersonal effects by triggering affective reactions and/or inferential processes in observers, depending on the observer's information processing and the perceived appropriateness of the emotional expression. Since the EASI model was proposed, it has attracted extensive attention from researchers. Unfortunately, as a rising theory in recent ten years, the EASI model is still less studied in China. What are the unique theoretical contributions of the EASI model compared with other emotion theories? What progress has the EASI model made in recent ten years? What problems have been solved in various fields by using the EASI model? What other issues about the EASI model deserve further attention? To answer the above research questions, this paper discriminates the EASI model with other related theories, such as feelings-as-information theory, the dual-process model, the dual threshold model of anger, emotional contagion theory and affective event theory, to clarify the unique contributions of the EASI model in explaining emotion and related phenomena. Then, we searched and screened the empirical papers which clearly stated that they are based on the EASI model on Google Scholar, and found 63 papers in total. We review the application of the EASI model in the fields of leadership, team, customer service, negotiation and persuasion, and summarize the factors influencing the boundary conditions of the EASI model—the degree of information processing and perceived appropriateness based on the analysis of the 63 empirical papers using the EASI model. Overall, the inferential processes and affective reactions mechanism of the EASI model have been extensively verified in various fields. Among them, there are 33 studies in the field of leadership, 9 studies in the field of teamwork, 8 studies in the field of customer service, 8 studies in the field of negotiation, and 5 studies in the field of persuasion. There are mainly three factors influencing the degree of information processing: epistemic motivation (e.g., need for cognitive closure, personal need for structure, cognitive load), observer's personality (e.g., implicit personality theory, conscientiousness, moral orientation, regulatory orientation, proactive personality) and employee's efficiency. There are mainly four factors influencing perceived appropriateness: situational factors (e.g., emotional expression rules, culture, the relationship between the expressor and the observer), emotional expression content (e.g., intensity of the expression, authenticity of the expression , the target of the expression), expressor's characteristics (e.g., leadership style, gender, race, power, status) and observer's characteristics (e.g., agreeableness, regulatory orientation, power distance orientation, perceived leadership power). Based on the EASI model, we further integrate the existing research findings of the content structure, mediating mechanisms and boundary conditions of the social function of emotions into an integrated framework. Following our review, we identify avenues for future investigations. Future research should (1) strengthen the systematic verification of the EASI model, such as investigate both of the inferential processes and affective reactions as well as the observer's information processing and perceived appropriateness at the same time, consider both of the reciprocal emotions and complementary emotions when investigate observer's affective reactions; (2) enhance the integration of the EASI model with other theories (e.g., the dual threshold model of anger, emotion regulation theory, the adapted elaboration likelihood model); (3) extend the application context of the EASI model, specifically, future study can explore the mixed emotional expressions of one individual in multiple natural interaction situations, investigate the effect when the observer perceives different emotional expressions from different individuals at the same time, explore the possible effect when the observer perceives multiple emotional expressions changes of the same individual on related events at different time points, track the long-term social effect of emotional expressions, and explore the bystander effect of emotional expressions and the application of EASI in new organizational contexts; and (4) improve the measurement methods of inferential processes and affective reactions. Related Articles | Metrics

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The mechanisms of histone modification in post-traumatic stress disorder ZHANG Yingqian, ZHAO Guangyi, HAN Yuwei, ZHANG Jingyi, CAO Chengqi, WANG Li, ZHANG Kunlin Advances in Psychological Science    2022, 30 (1): 98-114.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.00098 Abstract （257）            Knowledge map    Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder with complex etiologies that usually occurs after people are exposed to traumatic events. In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the criteria for PTSD included symptoms of intrusion, avoidance, negative alterations in cognitions and mood, and alterations in arousal and reactivity. The World Mental Health Surveys on Trauma and PTSD showed that more than 70% of individuals would experience traumatic events at least once in lifetime, while only a few would develop PTSD, suggesting individual differences in the genesis and development of PTSD. Previous studies have proved that both genetic and environmental factors could influence the risk of PTSD, thus epigenetics, as a discipline investigating the interaction between environment and genes, has attracted the attention of researchers. Among the epigenetic mechanisms, histone modification has received widespread attention and has been researched in depth. Modification of histones by adding one or more chemical groups (such as acetyl group, methyl group, etc.) can lead to changes in chromatin structure and gene transcriptional activity, consequently regulating the level of gene expression. In recent years, histone modification has been implicated as an essential part in the pathogenesis of PTSD for the following reason: the development of PTSD is usually related to the maladaptation of fear memory induced by traumatic events, and histone modification plays an important role in the consolidation and extinction of fear memory correspondingly. At present, techniques commonly used for the measurement of histone modification are Western Blotting and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), both based on the antibody technology. By combining ChIP with quantitative PCR (qPCR) technology, DNA microarray (also known as gene chip) technology or deep sequencing (Seq) technology, researchers can study the relationship between various types of histone modification and gene expression. What's more, animal models are the main methods to explore the association between histone modification and PTSD, using electric shocks (e.g., inescapable foot shock, tail shock, and tone shock), social stress (e.g., predator exposure), and single prolonged stress (SPS) to simulate symptoms of PTSD in the laboratory. We systematically searched and screened the literatures of histone modification in PTSD through PubMed (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/), PsychINFO (http://psycnet.apa.org/), and PsychArticles (http://psycnet.apa.org/), with finally 16 literatures selected for detailed integration and discussion. In spite of the nonnegligible heterogeneity among these studies, they proved the overall effect of histone modification was closely associated with the development of PTSD. Histone modification that enriched in the promoter regions of candidate genes like the Bdnf and Cdk5, could significantly increase the risk of PTSD. Alterations in levels of histone acetylation and methylation in hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex are associated with PTSD, playing key roles in the consolidation, reconsolidation, and extinction of fear memory in PTSD-like animals. It is worth noting that histone modification is mainly involved in the regulation of the immune system, the serotonergic system, the neuropeptide Y-ergic system, and the NMDA receptor-related pathways. In addition, histone modification can be regulated by a variety of enzymes, leading to flexible regulation of PTSD, making drugs that target histone modification good choices for clinical treatment of PTSD. Studying the neurobiological mechanisms of PTSD in human patients has been blocked by many factors; moreover, applying the results of animal models of PTSD to clinical research is a long way off. Therefore, using animal models to investigate the role of histone modification in the etiology of PTSD will remain a mainstream approach for some time to come. Related Articles | Metrics

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Less is more: A theoretical interpretation of minimalism in consumption CHEN Siyun, WEI Haiying, XIONG Jiwei, RAN Yaxuan Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (11): 2043-2061.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.02043 Abstract （203）            Knowledge map    Minimalism refers to a lifestyle that ?seeks satisfaction in a non-material world by reducing consumption. Given the increasing popularity of minimalistic consumption (i.e., voluntary simplicity), it is necessary to understand minimalism more comprehensively. First, we provide a ?categorization scheme related voluntary simplicity, including its conception, dimensions, and measurements. Characterized by a minimal, simple, and responsible lifestyle, minimalism can be defined as the degree to which consumers select a lifestyle to minimalize their consumption and to take control of their life. The practice of simplified living typically entails ?minimizing possessions, consuming less, and valuing personal growth. Then, factors that influence minimalistic consumption are presented. The reasons for individuals to adopt simplifying behaviors are manifold. That is, motivations for engaging minimalistic consumption are multifaceted and complicated, including both internal (i.e., personal, financial, lifestyle) and external (i.e., economic, social, environmental) motivations. In addition to consumers who curtail their consumption due to financial restraints, there are consumers who consciously consume, although they are financially well off. The rejection of the concept that one's success is determined by his/her material goods (i.e., materialism) has prompted ?interest in minimalistic consumption. In addition, some simplifiers (i.e., minimalistic consumers) are driven by motives of environmental sustainability. That is, when consumers give greater consideration to the natural environment and ecological system, they may engage in voluntary simplicity to live both well and sustainably. Furthermore, people can lead an independent and self-determined life through minimalistic consumption; therefore, a desire to achieve an autonomous life is an important antecedent of minimalistic consumption. Moreover, philosophical motivation (i.e., religious belief) is another factor driving minimalism in consumption. Moving forward, the potential impacts of minimalistic behavior are shown. Minimalism has a positive influence on individual, societal and environmental wellbeing. Adopting low consumption helps expand mental space, resulting in a feeling of lightness, relaxation, and clarity. A minimalistic lifestyle facilitates individuals' positive emotions while reducing their negative emotions such as depression. Consumers can also reduce their dependence on the market offerings by curtailing the overall consumption, in search of a simpler but happier life. Additionally, minimalistic practices offer ?several wellbeing benefits such as meaning and happiness. In addition, a minimalistic lifestyle can improve harmony in communities, as it can help build more connections with others in society. By sharing skills, donating to charities or giving back to the community, simplifiers can experience a sense of community and closeness to others, thus enhancing communal well-being. More importantly, most literature notes that this lifestyle is positively associated with environmental and ecological wellbeing. With a strong ecological awareness, consumers tend to protect the environment through a variety of practices, such as decreasing carbon emissions, ?avoiding excess packaging, and preserving resources and habitats. Collectively, we categorize antecedents of minimalistic consumption into four types (i.e., demographic, psychological, situational, religious factors). We also summarize the effects of minimalistic consumption in the previous research, such as enhancing happiness and sense of meaning. In order to understand voluntary simplicity, four theories (i.e., theory of basic values, self-determination theory; hierarchical theory of needs; ?self-regulation theory) were introduced. By combining these theories, we shed a novel light on understanding the forming process of minimalistic consumption. Specifically, in self-observation stages, individuals generate self-directed values. Based on these values, consumers make judgments whether their needs are satisfied. Lastly, in the self-reaction phase, consumers adopt the results of these judgments, and they evaluate achieve autonomy, competence and relevance from the self-determination theory. Given the important role of minimalistic consumption in the contemporary marketplace, it is essential for both marketers and scholars to know more details in simplifying practices. Several directions (e.g., developing valid measurements, taking cultural differences into account, identifying boundary conditions) for future research are discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Paternalistic leadership and employee performance: A meta-analysis of Chinese samples LIU Doudou, XU Yan, LI Chaoping Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (10): 1829-1846.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01829 Abstract （112）            Knowledge map    As a paradigm of local research, paternalistic leadership has gradually been popular in the field of Organizational Behavior. Paternalistic leadership is a leadership style that expresses absolute authority, elder's care, and moral role model in the context of humanism. As a core element in organizational context, employee performance is crucial for organizations, leaders, and employees, etc. However, the conclusion of the relationship between paternalistic leadership and employee performance is still controversial, as existing meta-analyses focus on the relationship between this relationship, but relatively ignore the important impact of cultural on the results; besides, most scholars have analyzed the authoritarian, benevolent, and moral dimensions of paternalistic leadership independently or parallelly, failing comprehensively consider the relationship between the three dimensions to conduct research on employee performance; in addition, the effectiveness of leadership style is the result of the joint action of leaders and employees, and previous studies have relatively ignored the moderating effects of gender and age characteristics on employee performance in China. Based on this, this study used meta-analysis and meta-analytic criterion profile analysis to explore the relationship between paternalistic leadership and employee performance in the Chinese context. Through a comprehensive search and screening of the Chinese and English literature on the relationship between paternalistic leadership and performance (including task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and counterproductive performance) conducted in the Chinese context, a total of 139 studies with 400 effect values were included (N = 44605). Our research contained three steps. In the first step, the main effects of authoritarian leadership, benevolent leadership and moral leadership on employees are estimated, including task performance, organizational behavior, and counterproductive performance with the Hunter-Schmidt meta-analytic method. Thereafter, we identify the paternalistic leadership profile when it is best related to employee performance through multiple regression and determine which profile of paternalistic leadership has the strongest predictive power for task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and counterproductive performance respectively with the meta-criterion profile. Thirdly, we also tested whether employee's characteristics of gender and age played a moderating role in those relationships. The results of the meta-analysis found that (1) Benevolent leadership and Moral leadership have strong positive correlations with both task performance and organizational citizenship behavior, and strong negative correlations with counterproductive behavior. In contrast, Authoritarian leadership has a significant negative correlation with task performance and organizational citizenship behavior, and a significant positive correlation with counterproductive behavior. (2) Low authoritative leadership profile (high level of benevolent and moral leadership) has the strongest predictive power for task performance and organizational citizenship behavior, and high authoritative leadership profile (low level of benevolent and moral leadership) has the strongest predictive power for counterproductive behavior. (3) ?Moderator analyses revealed that average age produces a meaningful impact on the relationships between authoritarian leadership and organizational citizenship behavior and counterproductive performance, the strength of the relationship between moral leadership and task performance. Moreover,the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between paternalistic leadership and performance is not significant. The findings firstly revealed the "truth" about the relationship between paternalistic leadership and employee performance in the Chinese context, which guide the direction of subsequent leadership research; Secondly, the relationship between the profile of the three-dimensions combination of paternalistic leadership and employee performance is explored from the perspective of person-centered, and the conclusion is more accurate and effective; Finally, the boundary conditions between paternalistic leadership and employee performance are clarified from the perspective of employee demographic characteristics. Further, this research has implications for management practice. On the one hand, leaders should adjust the combination of paternalistic leadership styles in time according to the environment to promote the optimal performance of subordinates; On the other hand, leaders should treat employees of different genders equally and adjust their leadership styles according to the needs of employees of different ages. Related Articles | Metrics

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Mirror equivalence or invariance and its breaking: Evidence from behavioral to cognitive neural mechanism QI Xingliang, CAI Houde Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (10): 1855-1865.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01855 Abstract （130）            Knowledge map    Mirror equivalence or invariance, also known as mirror generalization or symmetry generalization, is a perceptual property in which individuals regard the left-right mirror of a visual perception object as the same stimulus. Experimental evidence of animal behavior and human cognition shows that mirror equivalence or invariance is an evolutionary adaptive process of animal and human individuals to the bilateral symmetry of natural objects, which has obvious advantages in reducing cognitive learning load and survival pressure. Recent studies on cognitive neural mechanism finds that mirror equivalence or invariance is hierarchically processed in the ventral visual pathway of primates, and the fusiform gyrus cortex in the human brain is a key region for processing mirror equivalence or invariance information of objects or faces. Importantly, mirror equivalence or invariance may hinder the reading of script containing mirror characters, leading to mirror errors in the early reading for normal children. Therefore, it is necessary for readers to learn to use the inhibitory mechanism of “unlearning” of mirror generalization, so as to break the mirror equivalent or invariance and to acquire the ability of identifying the mirror characters. In this process, the left fusiform gyrus cortex gradually develops into the VWFA capable of recognizing mirror characters, but it still exhibits mirror equivalence or invariance for objects or faces. This is consistent with the neuronal recycling hypothesis, i.e., learning to read must occupy neurons in the left fusiform gyrus previously used for object or face processing. Furthermore, developmental dyslexia children (DD) have difficulty in inhibition of mirror generalization, suggesting the mechanism of breaking mirror equivalence or invariance may be abnormal in DD. Therefore, exploring the cognitive neural mechanism on breaking the mirror equivalent or invariance is important for elucidating the brain plasticity of learning to read. In this paper, we first briefly discuss the evolutionary adaptive theory of mirror equivalence or invariance and early related behavioral and cognitive study evidence. Then we systematically review recent evidence on the hierarchical processing of mirror equivalence or invariance in the ventral visual pathway, the role of the fusiform gyrus cortex of human brain in the process of mirror equivalence or invariance, the cognitive neural mechanism on breaking the mirror equivalent or invariance during learning to read, and the difficulty in mirror generalization inhibition and related brain network abnormality in DD. We propose that the interaction between the left fusiform gyrus or the VWFA and the early visual cortex, the parietal cortex and the brain network of spoken language may be an important neural basis for learning to use the inhibitory mechanism of mirror generalization for breaking the mirror equivalence or invariance. Future studies are needed to focus on the role of the two hemispheres and their commissure fibers in mirror equivalence or invariance processing, the detailed processing mechanism of mirror generalization and inhibition, the influence of mirror generalization and inhibition on mirror writing, and the mirror generalization processing of Chinese characters in normal Chinese children. Related Articles | Metrics

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Automatic perspective taking: The debate between implicit mentalizing and submentalizing LI Yi, XIAO Feng Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (10): 1887-1900.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01887 Abstract （80）            Knowledge map    Automatic perspective taking refers to an individual tracking other people's opinions or being affected by others' perspectives, even when he or she is not explicitly required to adopt such perspectives. This phenomenon is revealed by the consistency effect, which suggests that a worsening perspective taking performance is triggered when others' perspectives and one's own perspective are different. There are two main views regarding automatic perspective taking: the implicit mentalizing view holds that automatic perspective taking is a domain-specific process that spontaneously selects and processes others' perspectives, and the submentalizing view proposes a domain-general process, such as reflective attentional orientation or the spatial coding of a location, that simulates the role of the mentalizing process in thesocial environment. The common tasks in automatic perspective taking include the dot perspective taking task, the "social" Simon effect, the ambiguous number task, and the anticipatory looking paradigm. The consistency effect found in each task can be explained by both the implicit mentalizing view and the submentalizing view. Among the abovementioned tasks, the dot perspective taking task is the most typical type of automatic perspective taking task due to its utilization of the least cognitive resources compared to other automatic perspective taking tasks. Most behavioural experiments involving the dot perspective taking task pay great attention to the implicit mentalizing factors (including the social relevance of cues, the visual attribution state of cues, and the acquisition of a social perspective), but the results of the same factors support different views. In addition, cognitive neuroscience studies mainly compare the distinct neural mechanisms of one's own perspective with those of others' perspectives, but the consistency effect from a single perspective is less explored.Therefore, the interpretation of automatic perspective taking is still debatable. The evidence of the two views in automatic perspective taking shows that one view is unable to completely negate the other one, so it is possible to synthesize the two views into a framework, i.e., the synergistic model of implicit mentalizingand submentalizing processes.The consistency effect in automatic perspective taking can be achieved in three ways:(1) after the presentation of a visual stimulus that is first perceptually processed, if only directional cues but no social cues are found, then the consistency effect will be triggered by a directional process;(2) if social cues are present but do not reach the threshold of social perception activation, then they are instead processed as directional cues, and thus, automatic perspective taking will be activated by the submentalizing process; and (3) if social cues are present and reach the threshold of social perception activation, then automatic perspective taking is activated by the implicit mentalizing process. If social cues are present and reach the threshold of social perceptual activation and directionality is enhanced, then the implicit mentalizing and submentalizing processes will be performed together. The processing threshold of activating social perception has not been clearly defined, so further evidence is required to determine this threshold and to establish the occurrence context of minimum automatic perspective taking. Previous studies adopting the dot perspective taking task have focused more on the implicit mentalizing factors with different task details, in contrast to the submentalizing factors, so it is difficult to directly compare the results. Second, the small sample sizes of the experiments may reduce the reproducibility of the results. In addition, special individuals, such as infants, groups with autism spectrum disorder, and deaf children, may have different developmental performance levels in terms of perspective taking. Therefore, manipulating the implicit mentalizing and submentalizing factors of special individuals, as well as utilizing eye-tracking and/or cognitive neuroscience technologies, can provide further evidence of the underlying mechanisms of automatic perspective taking. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on self-compassion: A meta-analysis SUN Tengwei, YAN Yuxian, JIN Yuchang, AN Junxiu Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (10): 1808-1828.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01808 Abstract （129）            Knowledge map    Both mindfulness and self-compassion have positive effects on mental health, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of researchers. And mindfulness and self-compassion are also closely related. Previous research has found that mindfulness can predict an individual's level of self-compassion, a component of which also includes mindfulness. However, different studies used the same two variables to measure, and the correlation coefficient between mindfulness and self-compassion was significantly different. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the reasons for the large correlation coefficient difference between mindfulness and self-compassion. In this study, meta-analysis method was adopted, combined with empirical research results from global research, to deeply explore the relationship between mindfulness-based interventions and self-compassion in different groups and different contrast ways, as well as the factors that affect the relationship between them. Through a comprehensive search of Chinese and English literature up to November 2020, a total of 65 literature were finally included in this meta-analysis, including 62 English literature and 3 Chinese literature, and 99 independent effects were obtained, with a total sample size of 8103. In addition, 22 articles were included in the literature using horizontal comparison, 42 articles using longitudinal comparison; 16 articles using follow-up comparison. This paper mainly used Pearson correlation coefficient r as the effect value, and the effect value of the literature was coded as an effect value for each independent sample. If a paper reported multiple independent samples at the same time, the effect value would be coded separately to generate multiple independent effect sizes. After testing the publication bias through funnel plot, Rosenthals Classic Fail-safe N test, and Egger's test, it is found that there was no publication bias. After the heterogeneous test, the article also has high heterogeneity, so the analysis after the random effect model is selected. Sensitivity analysis showed that the degree of heterogeneity was effectively reduced after using One-study removed to gradually delete the research with higher heterogeneity, but regardless of the degree of heterogeneity, the intervention based on mindfulness was positively correlated with self-sympathy. This study discussed the moderating effects of different contrast methods (horizontal comparison, longitudinal comparison, follow-up comparison), sample groups (students, health care related workers, social related workers), and measurement tools (SCS, SCS-SF) on the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion. The subgroup test showed that the relationship between mindfulness-based intervention and self-compassion was influenced by the moderating effect of contrast style, but not by the sample group or measurement tool. The results showed that the mindfulness-based intervention had a significant positive correlation with self-compassion, and the mindfulness-based intervention had a positive impact on the level of self-compassion. The relationship between the mindfulness-based intervention and self-compassion was affected by the way of measurement comparison, but did not have a significant moderating relationship with the group and the measurement tool. The reason why there is such a big difference among many domestic and foreign studies is probably due to the difference of measurement methods and the difference caused by the in unity of measurement methods. Overall, in many experimental studies on the relationship between mindfulness and self-compassion, no matter which contrast method is used for measurement, the individual's level of self-compassion has increased after mindfulness-based intervention. Related Articles | Metrics

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Implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP): Measuring principle and applications WEN Fangfang, KE Wenlin, ZUO Bin, DAI Yuee, NIE Siyuan, YAO Yi, HAN Shi Advances in Psychological Science    2021, 29 (11): 1936-1936.   DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.01936 Abstract （112）            Knowledge map    The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) is a new implicit measurement method based on relational frame theory (RFT) and is used to directly measure social cognition, beliefs, or attitudes. The method consists of two basic tasks: congruent and incongruent. The basic hypothesis is that subjects' prior experience and response bias affect their responses to congruent or incongruent tasks. Specifically, a judgment response that conforms to subjects' cognitive experience should occur faster than a judgment response that does not conform. As a widely used implicit attitude measurement paradigm, the IRAP demonstrates a certain degree of reliability and validity. However, different response choices (e.g., similar/opposite vs. true/false) and social situational factors (e.g., mixed/single gender, public/private scene, etc.) are all important factors influencing the IRAP's effects. Simultaneously, the applicability of the IRAP differs somewhat from that of the relationship evaluation procedure (REP), implicit association test (IAT), relationship response task (RRT), and simple implicit procedure (SIP), and it has its own unique applicability. For example, the IRAP can directly measure the characteristics of implicit attitudes, while the implicit attitudes measured by the IAT can only be obtained as relative results. Starting from the structure of human speech relations, the IRAP can be used to explore even more complex and diverse relationships, such as measuring both “I am valuable” and the subjects' implicit attitude toward “I want to be valuable.” In addition, the IRAP can directly use declarative sentences as stimuli, while non-relativity and flexibility allow the IRAP to explore more complex and diverse relationships. The relational frame theory (RFT), relational elaboration and coherence model (REC), and differential relational responding effects (DAARRE) provide theoretical explanations for the different effects of the IRAP. To extend the applicability of the IRAP to a wider range of research fields and make it suitable for different experimental purposes, researchers have improved the original paradigm, and designed different variants such as the natural language IRAP, training IRAP, and change agenda IRAP. The IRAP was originally used in clinical diagnostic research and has gradually been extended to a wide range of applications in the fields of self, social cognition, population, and attitudes. To further verify the reliability and validity of different forms of the IRAP, exploring the psychological mechanism and effects of the IRAP, as well as its applicability in different fields—especially the research fields of implicit social cognition and intergroup interaction—will be important directions for future research. In conclusion, the IRAP provides a new perspective and method for researching implicit social cognition and even psychology as a whole, and lays a foundation for a deeper discussion of psychological scientific issues, thereby creating broad application prospects. Related Articles | Metrics