Next Issue

25 May 2026, Volume 58 Issue 5 Previous Issue   
---
Reports of Empirical Studies


For Selected:

Download Citations EndNote Ris BibTeX

Toggle Thumbnails

Reports of Empirical Studies

Select

Integration of spatial frame of reference systems in collaborative tasks QI Pei, LI Jing 2026, 58 (5):  793-808.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0793 Abstract ( 14 )   PDF (365KB) ( 6 )   Previous research has shown that spatial reference frame representation is a complex cognitive process influenced by factors such as the subject and object. Most prior studies had participants learn scenes individually, manipulating their perspective or the scene’s structure to identify reference frame determinants, yet this approach largely overlooked the social aspects of human behavior. However, as social beings, people frequently engage in spatial interactions, where understanding others’ perspectives is crucial for smooth interaction. Spatial collaboration, a key part of such interactions, involves tasks where individuals must work together to solve spatial problems. Building on past research, this study introduced a spatial collaboration task. Through three experiments, it focused on how individuals represented spatial reference frames during collaborative tasks and the conditions that enhanced the integration of these frames among participants. In each experiment, participants first collaborated with another person to learn a scene and then completed a judgment of relative directions (JRDs) task individually. In Experiment 1, the partner stood at a position of 315° to investigate how individuals establish representations of spatial reference systems in spatial collaboration. In Experiment 2, the partner’s position was adjusted to 225° to create an approximate face-to-face situation to investigate the conditions that promote the integration of spatial frame of reference systems (FoRs). Building on these studies, Experiment 3 further manipulated the presence time of the partner to explore the time course and influencing factors of the integration of spatial FoRs. The results of Experiment 1 showed that the pointing error of the participants under their own reference system was significantly lower than that under the partner’s perspective in the JRDs tasks. This indicated that the participants represented the space from their own FoRs, and no evidence of the integration of the spatial FoRs was seen. The results of Experiment 2 showed that there was no significant difference in the pointing errors of the two reference systems, which verified that face-to-face interaction with collaborative partners promoted the integration of spatial FoRs. The results of Experiment 3 showed that there was no significant difference in the absolute pointing error of the two reference systems, and the participants could still complete the integration of FoRs. However, the joint analysis of the reaction times from Experiments 2 and 3 found that there were significant differences in the participants’ reaction time performance between the two experiments, and whether the partner left early would affect the participants’ spatial information processing. Based on the above results, the conclusions are as follows: Firstly, multiple representation forms of FoRs existed in spatial collaborative tasks, with both single- and multi- frame representations possible. Secondly, the integration of FoRs in spatial collaboration was influenced by the partner’s position. An angle approximating face-to-face was more conducive to integration than a side position. Thirdly, even when the partner’s presence was reduced, participants could still integrate FoRs. However, when the partner left during the recovery phase, as opposed to being present throughout, participants formed a more profound partner-perspective representation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

The effects of attention and memory representations on change blindness during global motion direction transients in traffic-scene images REN Ruyue, LIU Yu, LAN Jijun, LI Yuan, YOU Xuqun 2026, 58 (5):  809-826.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0809 Abstract ( 6 )   PDF (1628KB) ( 1 )   Change blindness typically refers to the phenomenon where observers fail to realize and detect changes in objects or scenes when there is a brief visual interruption, restriction, or disturbance in the visual environment. This phenomenon is considered a significant contributor to driver human factors errors, posing a serious threat to public safety. Prior research has often relied on static masking paradigms, which may not adequately reflect change detection during natural, full-field observation. Furthermore, by focusing on variables tied to a single cognitive mechanism, prior studies have struggled to examine the roles of attention and memory representations within a unified framework in complex traffic scenarios. This study aimed to examine how attention and memory representations affect change blindness in response to sudden shifts in the motion path of traffic-scene images. The method of global motion direction transients was adopted to induce change blindness, employing images of real traffic scenes with different change types as experimental stimuli. The image moved along a certain path and changed instantaneously either at the moment of turning or at the midpoint of the straight line. In Experiment 1, a within-participants design was conducted with 2 (movement speed: fast, slow) × 2 (movement path: turning motion, straight motion) × 3 (change type: deletion, addition, location change). Forty participants were asked to detect the target changes. The results showed that fast motion significantly exacerbated change blindness solely under turning conditions, but had no significant effect during straight motion. In Experiment 2, the fast movement speed from Experiment 1 was used, a within-participants design was adopted, featuring 2 (movement time: long, short) × 2 (movement path: turning motion, straight motion) × 3 (change type: deletion, addition, location change). Thirty participants were requested to detect the target changes. The results indicated that longer encoding time for memory representations could mitigate change blindness within a limited scope. In Experiment 3, the fast movement speed was also used, a within-participants design with 3 (movement path: high-expectation turning motion, low-expectation turning motion, straight motion) × 3 (change type: deletion, addition, location change) was employed. Thirty-six participants were required to detect the target changes. The results suggested that individuals exhibited better detection performance for target changes under high-expectation conditions. The main findings are as follows. (1) Increased movement speed exacerbated change blindness, likely because it intensified competition for attentional resources when the direction of movement suddenly changed. However, movement speed needed to interact with other basic visual feature changes to induce change blindness. (2) Prolonging movement time, which refers to increasing encoding duration, could alleviate change blindness. Visual processing time might enhance change detection by improving the precision of scene memory representations during encoding; however, this effect appeared to be limited. (3) Heightened expectancy levels reduced change blindness. Individuals’ spatial anticipation of the turning direction likely introduced a response bias, endogenously modulating the pre-allocation of attention and the effective encoding of memory representations, thereby improving the quality and efficiency of change detection. In summary, change blindness in traffic-scene images during global motion direction transients arises from the interaction between competition for attentional resources and the limited capacity of memory representations. Expectations may endogenously modulate attentional allocation and the effective encoding of these representations, thereby influencing the likelihood of change blindness. These findings provide empirical support for and extend the attention-representation account of change blindness. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

The impact of tACS stimulation timing on the modulation of working memory GUO Ruiqiao, LI Wenrui, GUO Xue, ZHAO Na, LEI Ming, LIU Qiang 2026, 58 (5):  827-839.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0827 Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (562KB) ( 3 )   Previous studies have demonstrated that tACS can expand cognitive resources, thereby improving working memory (WM) performance, while some studies failed to observe a definitive advantage of tACS in boosting WM. Regarding this ongoing debate, this study sought to explore the effect of tACS on working memory by involving the factor of psychological inertia. Psychological inertia refers to the unconscious, automatic behavior of an individual. The conflict between psychological inertia and rational decision-making could lead to a loss of optimal choice. In Experiment 1, 36 participants completed a color recall reporting task. Active or sham tACS was applied before or after practice to manipulate the amount of memory resources at the initial stage. The results confirmed our hypothesis that participants who received active tACS after practice (post-practice) adopted similar memory strategies to those receiving sham stimulation due to a psychological inertia. They exhibited a trade-off between quantity and quality, i.e., post-practice tACS could boost memory accuracy with comparable quantity; while pre-practice stimulation improved memory quantity with comparable accuracy. To investigate whether the regulatory effects of the first task would carry over to the second task, 56 participants completed both color and orientation recall reporting tasks in Experiment 2, where tACS stimulation was applied after the practice of the first task. The results revealed that memory accuracy was improved while the quantity was unchanged in the first task, which is consistent with the results from the group receiving post-ptactice tACS in Experiment 1. However, the memory quantity was enhanced and the accuracy was kept unchanged in the second task, consisting with the results of pre-practice tACS in Experiment 1. This indicates that, psychological inertia can be disrupted in new situations, leading to new strategies. The regulatory effects of tACS on WM are modulated by the timing of stimulation. That is, pre-practice tACS influences the memory quantity, and post-practice tACS affects memory accuracy. Furthermore, the regulatory effects that were established during the first task may be disrupted when encountering a new task. These findings clarify the optimal temporal window for tACS intervention, providing a precise reference for clinical cognitive rehabilitation, such as early intervention in Alzheimer's disease. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Make your emotions heard: How emotion sharing boosts interpersonal emotion regulation across various interpersonal distances LI Sijin, TANG Yuyao, LI Qi, WANG Tingdong, ZHANG Dandan 2026, 58 (5):  840-852.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0840 Abstract ( 10 )   PDF (595KB) ( 5 )   With increased population mobility, emotional support from strangers has become an essential supplementary resource for individuals coping with emergencies. Interpersonal emotion regulation (IER), wherein one individual (the regulator) intentionally influences another’s (the target) emotional state during social interaction, plays a critical role in alleviating emotional distress, fostering harmonious relationships, and promoting social cohesion. However, the impact of interpersonal distance on this process remains underexplored. Moreover, the role of emotion sharing, a key cue in emotional communication, in moderating these effects lacks empirical examination. This study investigates the mechanisms underlying the influence of interpersonal distance and emotion sharing on IER, comprising two experiments. Experiment 1 employed a 2 (interpersonal distance: friend vs. stranger) × 2 (emotion intensity: low vs. high) within-subjects design to examine how interpersonal distance affects the regulator’s selection of emotion regulation strategies during IER. Results showed that low-intensity negative emotions did not yield significant differences in strategy selection between friends and strangers. In contrast, when negative emotions were high in intensity, participants were more likely to adopt contextual-adaptive strategies when regulating friends than strangers. Building on these findings, Experiment 2 incorporated eye-tracking technology to further elucidate the effect of interpersonal distance across three key phases of IER: emotion identification, strategy selection, and strategy output. Additionally, emotion sharing was introduced as a moderating variable to examine its role in mitigating the gaps posed by interpersonal distance. Employing a 2 (interpersonal distance: friend vs. stranger) × 2 (emotion sharing: present vs. absent) within-subjects design, the study assessed emotion identification (pupil diameter), strategy selection (proportion of contextual-adaptive strategy), and strategy output (pupil diameter and self-reported regulation difficulty). Findings revealed that, in the absence of emotion sharing, participants exhibited a stronger preference for adaptive strategies and reported lower regulation difficulty when regulating their friends. Moreover, participants expended reduced cognitive resources during emotion identification (small pupil diameter) and allocated greater cognitive resources during strategy output (larger pupil diameter) for their friends, highlighting the nuanced cognitive demands associated with close interpersonal relationships. Notably, explicit emotion sharing by strangers effectively bridged the gaps caused by greater interpersonal distance. It facilitated the adoption of contextual-adaptive strategy, reduced subjective regulation difficulty, and optimized cognitive resource allocation by decreasing cognitive load during emotion identification and enhancing cognitive resource engagement during strategy output. This study provides novel empirical evidence on the impact of interpersonal distance on IER from the perspective of the regulator and further elucidates the moderating role of emotion sharing in this process. The findings support and extend the Social Regulatory Cycle Model, particularly by demonstrating how the regulator’s cognitive processes vary as a function of interpersonal distance. By integrating emotion sharing from the target into the model, the present study highlights its positive role in optimizing IER. Overall, these findings provide valuable theoretical and empirical insights into the cognitive mechanisms underlying IER, highlighting the interplay between interpersonal distance and emotion sharing in shaping regulation processes. Practically, this study offers guidance for enhancing emotional support protocols in diverse social settings, fostering better interpersonal interactions and psychological well-being. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

The development of reading comprehension monitoring ability and its moderating factors among third and fifth grade children JIANG Bofan, CHEN Qiyang, CUI Nannan, WU Yan 2026, 58 (5):  853-865.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0853 Abstract ( 8 )   PDF (485KB) ( 2 )   Comprehension monitoring refers to the metacognitive process whereby readers detect a mismatch between their current situation model and new information encountered in the text (awareness) and repair this mismatch by reconstructing the situation model. Previous research has shown that comprehension monitoring plays a critical role in reading, as it helps children focus on relevant information. However, deficits in word recognition and decoding can also lead to reading difficulties and are closely related to cognitive abilities. At present, there is relatively little research on developmental patterns of comprehension monitoring across grade levels, and studies on how cognitive abilities modulate children’s comprehension monitoring have mainly focused on second language learners or children with special educational needs. Drawing on eye-tracking methodology and employing an inconsistency detection paradigm, the present study investigates how children monitor inconsistencies and related information in texts during reading, and examines developmental differences and the moderating roles of relevant cognitive abilities. Two studies were conducted. Study 1 adopted a 2 (Grade: third vs. fifth) × 2 (Semantic consistency: consistent vs. inconsistent) × 2 (Semantic relatedness: related vs. unrelated) three-factor mixed experimental design, with semantic consistency and semantic relatedness as within-subjects variables and grade as a between-subjects variable. On the basis of the preceding analyses, we additionally examined whether morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge moderated the relations involving comprehension monitoring. We also conducted path analyses to clarify how morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge exert their effects on comprehension monitoring. Participants were required to read the experimental materials and complete comprehension judgment tasks. The results showed that (1) both third- and fifth-grade children effectively monitored textual information, as reflected by significantly longer Gaze duration, Second reading time, and Regression-path duration in the inconsistent than in the consistent condition; (2) text relatedness did not modulate the comprehension monitoring process, but related text information enhanced reading efficiency among third graders; and (3) vocabulary knowledge moderated children’s comprehension monitoring, such that children with richer vocabulary knowledge repaired inconsistencies more rapidly. Although morphological awareness did not exert a direct effect, it influenced comprehension monitoring indirectly through vocabulary knowledge. These findings indicate that third-grade children already exhibit a certain level of comprehension monitoring ability, and that improvements in this ability are closely associated with vocabulary knowledge and morphological awareness. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Emotional attentional bias among adolescents with different levels of interpersonal competence WU Yingying, ZHANG Yating, WU Xingyan, WANG Zhenxing, CHEN Lanqing, XIE Hanying 2026, 58 (5):  866-886.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0866 Abstract ( 9 )   PDF (439KB) ( 5 )   A substantial body of research has shown that individuals with social anxiety disorder, as well as adolescents with elevated levels of social anxiety, exhibit an attentional bias toward negative facial expressions, highlighting the crucial role of attentional bias in social interaction. Although most existing studies have focused on socially anxious populations, the current study aims to investigate how attentional bias relates to interpersonal functioning and its potential underlying mechanisms in typically developing adolescents. To this end, the present study targeted a sample of typically developing adolescents, examining their attentional biases toward negative and positive emotional stimuli in two formats: facial expressions and text. A total of 60 adolescents without clinical symptoms of anxiety participated in the study. Based on their level of interpersonal competence, they were classified into three groups: low, medium, and high, with 20 participants in each group. All participants completed two eye-tracking experiments, with the order of tasks counterbalanced across individuals. In Experiment 1, a dot-probe paradigm was used to assess attentional bias toward emotional faces across different competence groups. The participants were presented with pairs of emotional (negative or positive) and neutral faces, followed by a target stimulus appearing in the location of one of the faces. They were instructed to respond to the target as quickly as possible. In Experiment 2, a sentence reading task was employed to assess attentional bias toward emotional text. The participants were instructed to read sentences (negative, positive, or neutral) naturally and make accuracy judgments on comprehension questions presented after a subset of the sentences. Experiment 1 revealed that adolescents with different levels of interpersonal competence showed their own characteristic patterns in emotional face processing. Specifically, results indicated a general attentional bias toward negative faces among adolescents. However, with respect to vigilance and temporal dynamics, each interpersonal competence group exhibited its own characteristic profile: individuals with low interpersonal skills exhibit reduced sensitivity to negative facial expressions, whereas those with moderate or high interpersonal competence can rapidly detect and process these expressions. For positive faces, the low-competence group showed sensitivity and re-engagement tendencies, the medium-competence group displayed no clear bias, and the high-competence group demonstrated rapid engagement and stable processing patterns. Experiment 2 revealed that only the high-competence group exhibited an attentional bias toward negative textual information. By contrast, attentional patterns for positive text mirrored those found in the facial expression task across all groups. Overall, individuals with different levels of interpersonal competence demonstrate their own characteristic patterns of attentional bias. In addition, the high-competence group demonstrated greater cross-modal stability, whereas the low- and medium-competence groups showed more stable attentional patterns toward positive stimuli and more context-dependent patterns in response to negative stimuli. This study contributes to understanding the prevalence and developmental significance of emotional attentional bias among adolescents. Moreover, it reveals differential stability of attentional bias across emotional valences and ability groups, offering novel insights into the relationship between emotional attention mechanisms and interpersonal competence in typically developing adolescents. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Characteristics and mechanisms of trust in older adults in situations inducing loneliness stereotypes ZHANG Baoshan, CHEN Yanyu, WANG Mengze 2026, 58 (5):  887-902.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0887 Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (241KB) ( 1 )   In recent years, cases of fraud targeting older adults have been on the rise, with many scammers exploiting age-related stereotypes to manipulate their trust and successfully commit fraudulent acts. Among these stereotypes, loneliness stereotype—a pervasive and negative aging stereotype—may also influence older adults’ trust behaviors. However, researchers have yet to systematically examine the relationship between loneliness stereotypes and trust in older adults, as well as the underlying psychological mechanisms. Socioemotional selectivity theory and dynamic integration theory provide theoretical explanations for understanding the impact of aging stereotypes on trust and offer differing perspectives on the underlying mechanisms between the two aforementioned variables. The research gap is addressed by the present study by investigating the relationship between loneliness stereotypes and trust decision-making, as well as the underlying mechanisms involved. This study consists of four experiments. Study 1 examines the impact of loneliness stereotypes on trust decision-making. A total of 108 older adults were randomly assigned to the loneliness stereotype activation group, the memory decline stereotype activation group, or the control group. The participants were instructed to read a paragraph of descriptive material before completing a trust game. Study 2 explores whether cognitive resources mediate the relationship between loneliness stereotypes and trust decision-making. A total of 102 older adults were randomly assigned to either the stereotype activation group or the control group. The participants were instructed to read the material as in Study 1 and complete an adapted facial trustworthiness evaluation task. The viewing time was manipulated at two levels (500 ms vs. 3000 ms). Study 3 investigates whether emotional motivation serves as the underlying mechanism in the relationship between loneliness stereotypes and trust decision-making. A total of 107 older adults were randomly assigned to one of four groups: stereotype activation-goal priming, stereotype activation-non-goal priming, general context-goal priming, or general context-non-goal priming. After reading the same material as in Study 1, the participants were asked to complete a lexical judgment task and an adapted trust game. Study 4 examines the mediating role of future time perspective. A total of 72 older adults were randomly assigned to the same groups as in Study 2. The participants were instructed to read the same material as in Study 1 and complete a measurement of future time perspective and a facial trustworthiness evaluation task. The results show that, first, loneliness stereotypes increase the trust levels of older adults, whereas the memory decline stereotype did not significantly affect their trust (Study 1). Second, the effect of loneliness stereotypes on trust is moderated by cognitive resources. In particular, adequate cognitive resources amplify the impact of loneliness stereotypes on trust, indicating that insufficient cognitive resources are not the mechanism underlying the effect of loneliness stereotypes (Study 2). Third, unconscious goal priming, as an intervention that manipulates motivation, effectively reduces the impact of loneliness stereotypes on trust decision-making. In particular, after priming the unconscious goals of older adults, the influence of loneliness stereotypes on trust becomes nonsignificant (Study 3). Finally, future time perspective mediates the relationship between loneliness stereotypes and trust in older adults. This finding supports the idea that, for loneliness stereotypes, emotional motivation induced by a future time perspective increases the trust levels of individuals (Study 4). These findings suggest that in the relationship between loneliness stereotypes and trust, motivations related to emotional significance may play a more crucial role than other types of motivations. This study offers several theoretical and practical contributions. First, this work focuses on the loneliness stereotype, a longstanding yet underexplored construct, and deepens the research on aging-related stereotypes. Second, this study examines the relationship between loneliness stereotypes and trust decision-making, as well as its mechanisms, to further explore how negative stereotypes about aging influence trust. This work also contributes to the fields of aging stereotypes, socioemotional selectivity theory, and dynamic integration theory. Finally, this research offers valuable insights into future tailored interventions aimed at reducing blind trust among older adults in real-world situations. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Transition from “frugality” to “luxury” and vice versa: Effects of transition order and childhood scarcity experience on inhibitory control JIANG Jiali, ZHANG Peng, FAN Lifang, LIU Ying, LU Liuliu, BAI Xuejun 2026, 58 (5):  903-917.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0903 Abstract ( 9 )   PDF (258KB) ( 5 )   We investigated how scarcity perception and the order in which scarcity and abundance are experienced influence inhibitory control, as well as whether these effects are immediate or long-lasting. In Experiment 1, 272 college students were recruited to examine the association between perceived scarcity and inhibitory control using both questionnaire-based measures and an experimental task (the Flanker task). The results indicated that individuals exhibited significantly lower levels of inhibitory control when scarcity, rather than abundance, was perceived at the time of the experiment. Experiment 2 involved 101 college students and employed situational manipulations in which participants experienced scarcity and abundance on separate occasions, with the order of exposure counterbalanced. The findings showed that compared with participants who transitioned from abundance to scarcity, those who experienced scarcity first and abundance subsequently demonstrated significantly shorter response times on the Flanker task under the abundance condition. However, transition order did not affect the inhibitory control. Experiment 3 recruited 126 college students. Participants were split into two groups based on the level of childhood scarcity experience reported: high vs low. For all participants, the experimental manipulations of scarcity and abundance were identical to those in Experiment 2. The results showed that when individuals experienced abundance first and scarcity afterward, those with more childhood scarcity experience exhibited significantly higher levels of inhibitory control than those with less childhood scarcity experience. These findings suggest that resource scarcity perception exerts both immediate and long-term effects rooted in early-life experiences. In summary, our results indicate that transitions from frugality to luxury are associated with enhanced general cognitive processing and behavioral performance. In contrast, transitions from luxury to frugality impair inhibitory control, particularly among individuals with limited exposure to scarcity during childhood. Collectively, these findings extend scarcity theory by highlighting the dynamic and developmental nature of scarcity-related cognitive effects. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Paradox of emphasizing effort: How emphasizing effort discourages pursuit of STEM fields WANG Zhen, ZUO Guoguo, GUAN Jian 2026, 58 (5):  918-934.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0918 Abstract ( 4 )   PDF (363KB) ( 2 )   Effort can be defined broadly as the exertion of physical or mental energy to achieve a specific goal or complete a task. It is valued globally and is commonly viewed as a pathway to success. However, recent evidence suggests that emphasizing effort may backfire, as it can imply that individuals have to work hard to compensate for low brilliance. Furthermore, perceptions of low brilliance may negatively impact sense of belonging and motivations for STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). We refer this phenomenon as the paradox of emphasizing effort, indicating that although effort seems to have beneficial effects, overwhelming emphasizing effort may undermine individuals’ pursuit of STEM fields. Field-specific ability beliefs refers to beliefs about the extent to which success in a particular field depends on brilliance. For example, brilliance is believed to be essential for success in STEM fields. When field-specific ability beliefs combined with gender-brilliance stereotype, by which women are stereotypically viewed as less likely than men to possess brilliance, emphasizing brilliance may undermine women’s intentions, interest, sense of belonging, and motivation to pursue STEM fields. Given that individuals tend to perceive effort and ability (or brilliance) as inversely related, according to attribution theory and the “performance = effort + skill (ability)” theory, emphasizing effort might lead to perceptions of low brilliance, which in turn hinders individuals’ pursuit of STEM fields. In this research, across 4 studies (N = 1, 038), we investigated the paradox of emphasizing effort and the underlying mechanism of this paradox. In Study 1, from the perspective of observers, we explored whether emphasizing a target’s effort led participants to be less likely to suggest that the target should pursue STEM majors, compared to when effort was not emphasized. In Study 2, incorporating the perspective of actors, we examined whether emphasizing effort lowered participants’ own intentions to pursue STEM internships, compared to when effort was not emphasized. In Study 3, we examined whether the paradox of emphasizing effort could be explained by perceptions of low brilliance. In Study 4, we tested whether the results regarding to the mediating role of low-brilliance perceptions could be replicated. The results showed that participants exposed to a target whose effort was emphasized were less likely to suggest that the target should pursue STEM fields in education and occupation, regardless of the target’s gender (female, male, or unspecified), compared to those exposed to a target whose effort was not emphasized (Studies 1~4). Additionally, when participants own effort was emphasized, they reported lower intentions, interest, sense of belonging, and motivation to pursue STEM fields in occupation, compared to those whose effort was not emphasized (Studies 2~4). Furthermore, perceptions of low brilliance were a key mechanism underlying the paradox of emphasizing effort. Specifically, emphasizing effort led to perceptions of low brilliance, which in turn caused individuals to steer away from STEM fields in occupation (Studies 3~4). The first theoretical contribution of this research is to advance the literature of effort. Previous work on effort has primarily focused on positive consequences of effort, our research is the first to reveal the negative effects of emphasizing effort on individuals’ pursuit of STEM fields. Second, our research expanded the application of attribution theory and the “performance = effort + skill (ability)” theory. Third, our research, to some extent, advances theory related to field-specific ability beliefs. Our research demonstrated that the negative effects of field-specific ability beliefs could be induced even without directly emphasizing brilliance. Fourth, our research offers a potential new perspective on explaining gender disparities in STEM fields. Finally, our research suggests that deemphasizing the roles of effort and brilliance in achieving success in STEM fields may help mitigate the detrimental consequences of the paradox of emphasizing effort. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Beyond “The more the better”: The impact of altruism degree on moral evaluation and its moderating mechanism SUN Sijie, ZHAO Huanhuan, PI Qiao, ZHANG Heyun 2026, 58 (5):  935-960.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0935 Abstract ( 4 )   PDF (1184KB) ( 3 )   Moral evaluation involves assessing the goodness or wrongness of actions and personal qualities. While altruism—defined as actions intended to enhance the well-being of others, often through resource allocation—is generally valued, a societal perspective posits that altruistic actions are also expected to align with prevailing social norms. This study investigates a seemingly paradoxical phenomenon: highly altruistic behavior is occasionally judged as less moral than moderately altruistic behavior. Drawing on the social functionalist perspective, we propose that observers perceive highly altruistic behavior as possessing a weaker teaching function; that is, as being less effective in guiding social life and establishing beneficial behavioral norms, consequently leading to lower moral evaluations. Furthermore, self-uncertainty, which is a negative experience stemming from doubts regarding one’s important traits or the unpredictability of the external environment, can influence social cognition and, consequently, moral evaluations. This research explores the relationship between altruistic behavior and moral evaluation, examining the mediating role of teaching function perception and the moderating role of self-uncertainty, with the aim of fostering a deeper understanding of altruism and moral evaluation to promote societal harmony. Seven studies were conducted to test the hypothesized moderated mediation model. Initial scenario-based designs in Studies 1a (N = 272) and 1b (N = 296) explored the relationships among altruism degree, moral evaluation, and teaching function perception in monetary and temporal altruism contexts. Studies 2a (N = 313) and 2b (N = 377) employed a manipulating-of-mediating-as-a-moderator design to further test these causal relationships. Study 3 (N = 295) and Study 4 (N = 704) then examined the moderating effects of observers’ trait and state self-uncertainty, respectively. Finally, Study 5 (N = 1, 798) conducted an internal meta-analysis across all experiments, which provided robust validation of the overall model. Consistent with our hypotheses, we present converging evidence supporting the following propositions: (1) Highly altruistic behavior, compared to moderately altruistic behavior, consistently received lower moral evaluations, both for the behavior itself and for the actor; (2) Perceived teaching function mediated the relationship between altruism degree and moral evaluation, with highly altruistic behavior diminishing the perception of teaching function and consequently reducing moral evaluation; (3) Observers’ self-uncertainty moderated the relationship between the altruism degree and perceived teaching function, such that high self-uncertainty exacerbated the perception of reduced teaching function for highly altruistic behavior, whereas low self-uncertainty attenuated this effect; (4) The internal meta-analysis substantiated the robustness of the relationships among altruism degree, perceived teaching function, and moral evaluation across both monetary and temporal altruism contexts. Our findings offer several significant contributions to the literature: (1) The study provides novel empirical evidence supporting the societal perspective of altruism, demonstrating that moral evaluations are not only determined by altruistic intent but also shaped by social expectations, which consequently leads to lower evaluations of highly altruistic behavior; (2) The study identifies perceived teaching function as a critical mediator in the relationship between altruism degree and moral evaluation, which underscores the active role of individuals in shaping social norms through their moral judgments; (3) The study reveals the moderating role of self-uncertainty, which illustrates the dynamic interplay between individual characteristics and external social environments in shaping moral evaluations of altruism. These findings offer new avenues for understanding the complexities of altruism and moral evaluation, suggesting future research should explore these nuanced relationships across diverse contexts and behavioral domains. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Spicy food enhances psychological sense of power: Evidence and psychological consequences LEI Shuyu, FU Ying, DU Jiangang, QIN Qihui 2026, 58 (5):  961-975.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0961 Abstract ( 5 )   PDF (241KB) ( 1 )   Spicy food is more than just a sensory experience; it may shape how powerful we feel. This research proposes and tests the “spicy empowerment effect,” the idea that consuming spicy food can enhance an individual’s psychological sense of power. We hypothesize that consuming spicy food increases individuals’ psychological sense of power, which in turn influences their purchase intentions for products promoted by competence-oriented (vs. warmth-oriented) advertising and their risk-taking and challenge- seeking behaviors. We tested this effect across a pilot study, three main studies, and an additional study using real-world behavioral data. The pilot study employed a personality judgment task to assess whether individuals labeled as “spicy food lovers” were perceived as more powerful than those who preferred sour or sweet flavors, examining the association between spiciness and psychological power from a social cognition perspective. Study 1 was a laboratory experiment testing whether participants who tasted spicy (vs. mild) snacks reported remarkably higher levels of psychological power. Study 2 examined whether spicy food consumption led participants to prefer purchasing products promoted by competence- (vs. warmth-) oriented advertising and tested the mediating role of psychological power in this relationship. Study 3 utilized a pretest-posttest design to validate robustly the effect on psychological power and extended the findings to behavioral outcomes, namely, risk taking (high-risk investment) and challenge seeking (willingness to attempt a challenging task). Finally, an additional study analyzed real-world behavioral data to examine the association between regional food preferences (spicy vs. mild) and consumers’ likelihood of clicking the shopping cart on advertisements emphasizing competence rather than warmth. Results showed that in the pilot study, individuals labeled as “spicy food lovers” were perceived as more powerful than those preferring sour or sweet flavors (p < 0.001). Study 1 demonstrated that consuming spicy (vs. mild) food significantly elevated participants’ psychological power (p < 0.001), even after controlling for mood, food liking, inherent preference for spicy food, gender, and age. In Study 2, the interaction between food taste and advertising appeal (competence vs. warmth) was significant (p = 0.004); spicy food consumption increased purchase intentions for competence-oriented advertisements via heightened psychological power (indirect effect = 0.38, SE = 0.14, 95% CI = [0.14, 0.70]). Study 3 showed that spicy food significantly increased psychological power from pretest to posttest (p < 0.001), which subsequently increased participants’ propensity for high-risk investment (p < 0.001) and willingness to attempt challenging tasks (p < 0.001). The additional study further demonstrated that users from high-spice regions were more likely to click the shopping cart on competence-framed advertisements (interaction term: p < 0.05), validating the real-world impact of the empowering effect. Across a pilot study, three main studies, and an additional real-world data analysis, we demonstrate that spicy food consumption can enhance individuals’ psychological sense of power, shaping their purchase intentions in response to different advertising appeals and promoting risk-taking and challenge-seeking behaviors. These findings contribute to the literature on food psychology, psychological power, and sensory marketing, highlighting how a simple gustatory experience can influence internal psychological states and consequential consumer actions. From a practical perspective, marketers may harness this effect by aligning spicy-themed products with power- and competence-oriented messaging. More broadly, our findings suggest a natural, low-cost, and accessible way for individuals to activate a sense of psychological empowerment and embrace challenges. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Gathering wood for a brighter flame: How group altruism promotes conspicuous altruism WANG Tianhong, XIE Xiaofei 2026, 58 (5):  976-994.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0976 Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (176KB) ( 2 )   Conspicuously displaying one’s altruistic behavior—conspicuous altruism—can promote the spread of prosocial norms and encourage further acts of kindness. However, such behavior often triggers psychological tension due to fears of being perceived as self-serving, a conflict known as the “conspicuous altruism paradox.” While previous studies have primarily examined this dilemma in individual contexts, little attention has been given to the potential role of social settings. We proposed that engaging in altruism within a group may help individuals reinterpret their actions as morally motivated rather than ego-driven. Specifically, we hypothesized that individuals would be more willing to publicly share their altruistic behaviors when these behaviors are performed in a group setting, and that this group effect would be driven by both internal motives (altruistic communication) and external motives (impression management). To test this hypothesis, we conducted ten studies using a range of methods, including laboratory-based tasks, online surveys, real-world behavioral data, and large language model (LLM) simulations. In total, 1, 938 human participants took part in the studies, and 756 independent responses were generated via LLM simulations. Human participants were recruited from online crowdsourcing platforms and real-world volunteer groups. Studies 1a and 1b employed imagined scenarios in which participants considered engaging in altruistic acts such as time or monetary donations, either alone or with others, and indicated their willingness to share these actions. Study 1c further controlled for display materials to rule out the alternative explanation of group-framed display. Studies 2-5 expanded on these designs using memory recall, open-ended narratives, and real-world volunteer surveys. Complementing these human studies, the AI-based simulations included two parts: Study 6a tested whether LLMs could reproduce the human-patterned group effect of conspicuous altruism; and Study 6b examined whether observing group-based altruism could promote prosocial diffusion among subsequent agents. Results across all studies consistently supported the proposed group effect of conspicuous altruism. Participants were more inclined to share their altruistic acts after engaging in group-based behavior compared with acting alone. This effect appeared across a variety of altruistic domains, including blood donation, tutoring support, and financial giving, and was also evident in real volunteer settings. The dual-path mechanism was robust: group altruism enhanced both altruistic communication motives—driven by a desire to inspire others—and impression management motives—concerned with social image and recognition. LLM simulations replicated this group effect and further demonstrated its potential for promoting prosocial behavioral diffusion, suggesting that group-framed altruistic acts are more likely to be passed on or imitated by others. A mini meta-analysis of all studies confirmed the robustness of the group effect across diverse contexts and methods. This research extends the theoretical understanding of conspicuous altruism by identifying group-based prosocial behavior as a key contextual factor that reduces reputational concerns and enhances the likelihood of public sharing. Group participation helps individuals resolve the moral tension of altruistic display by reframing it as socially responsible rather than self-promotional. These findings offer practical implications for the design of charitable campaigns and social media strategies: promoting group-based engagement in altruistic initiatives may significantly increase both participation and the visibility of prosocial behaviors. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Select

Development of main effect DIF and interactive DIF detection method in cognitive diagnosis assessments: A recursive partitioning-based perspective LIU Kai, GUO Zhichen, WANG Qin, WANG Daxun, CAI Yan, TU Dongbo 2026, 58 (5):  995-1014.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0995 Abstract ( 3 )   PDF (460KB) ( 2 )   With the growing recognition of the advantages of cognitive diagnosis (CD) in psychological and educational measurement, applying the CD framework to test development has become an important research direction in the field of psychology. In the development of cognitive diagnostic assessments, detecting differential item functioning (DIF) remains a crucial quality control procedure to ensure test fairness and validity. However, existing CD-based DIF detection methods typically focus on a single covariate at a time. While these approaches are effective for identifying main effect DIF induced by a single covariate, they are limited in detecting interactive DIF caused by the interaction among multiple covariates. Such limitations may compromise the fairness and interpretability of assessment outcomes. To address this issue, the present study integrates CD modeling with recursive partitioning techniques by proposing a novel DIF detection method, namely the Item-based Sequential Recursive Partitioning Method (ISRPM). Building on the core principles of recursive partitioning, the ISRPM allows the simultaneous consideration of multiple covariates within a single DIF detection procedure and facilitates the identification of both main effect DIF and interactive DIF in cognitive diagnostic assessments. To evaluate the performance of the proposed method, a series of Monte Carlo simulation studies were conducted focusing on two key objectives: (1) examining how factors such as sample size per group, DIF magnitude, DIF type, item quality, correlations among attributes, and the influence of demographic covariates on attribute mastery distribution affect the performance of ISRPM; and (2) comparing ISRPM with several existing DIF detection methods across varied experimental conditions. In addition, to illustrate its practical utility, ISRPM was applied to a cognitive diagnostic version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (DC-SPQ) and compared with five established DIF detection methods. The results showed that (1) sample size, DIF magnitude, and item quality substantially influenced the performance of all methods; and (2) when items exhibited interactive DIF, ISRPM achieved higher detection accuracy than the Wald, LR, FS-Wald, FS-LR, and Mantel-Haenszel (MH) approaches. When only the main effect DIF was present, the overall performance of ISRPM was comparable to that of the existing methods. These findings suggest that ISRPM provides a flexible and effective framework for identifying both main effect DIF and interactive DIF in cognitive diagnostic assessments, thereby contributing to methodological advancements in fairness evaluation and the broader application of CD-based measurement in psychological and educational measurement. References | Related Articles | Metrics