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25 June 2026, Volume 58 Issue 6 Previous Issue   
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Reports of Empirical Studies


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Roles of global configuration and local motion in beat synchronization with biological motion LU Xiaoman, DU Yike, YE Wenlong, WANG Haifei, MENG Lu, ZHOU Liang 2026, 58 (6):  1015-1027.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1015 Abstract ( 4 )   Humans have an inherent ability to perceive biological motion (BM) in their surroundings and align with its rhythm, even when it is depicted through a simplified arrangement of light points. Point-light BM, although simplified, encompasses global configuration and local motion trajectories, which are crucial for perception. Prior research has advanced our understanding of BM processing, but few studies have thoroughly investigated the respective roles of global configuration and local motion in beat synchronization with BM. This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the interaction between global configuration and local motion information during beat synchronization with BM. This study comprised three experiments involving 30, 27, and 33 Chinese participants in experiments 1, 2, and 3, respectively. All the experiments employed a beat synchronization paradigm, in which participants were required to concurrently engage in beat synchronization and change detection tasks. The materials utilized in experiment 1 included standard, scrambled, and inverted scrambled BM. Experiment 2 comprised scrambled, inverted scrambled, and scrambled uniform BM. Experiment 3 encompassed standard, unscrambled uniform, scrambled, and scrambled uniform BM. The stability of beat synchronization was the primary dependent variable across all experiments. Experiment 1 demonstrated that beat synchronization stability under the standard BM condition was considerably higher than that observed in the scrambled and inverted scrambled BM conditions. This finding highlights the critical role of global configuration information in the synchronization process. In Experiment 2, under the condition of disrupted global configuration, a comparison of the three local motion states showed that disrupting either the biological nature of motion direction or the biological nature of speed variation resulted in no significant difference in synchronization stability compared to preserving local biological motion. The lack of global configuration information may restrict the influence of local motion on the stabilization of synchronization. Experiment 3 revealed an interaction: when the global configuration was intact, disrupting the biological nature of local speed variation significantly reduced synchronization stability; however, when the global configuration was disrupted, synchronization performance showed no difference between preserving and disrupting the biological nature of local motion. This finding suggests that global configuration is essential for the functioning of local motion information. This study demonstrated that beat synchronization with BM is influenced by global configuration and local motion, and global configuration exerts a dominant influence. The findings can be analyzed using Bayesian theory: when the global configuration of BM is preserved, human-like information activates preexisting brain templates, providing prior knowledge, and local motion presents likelihood information that corresponds with these predictions. This condition ensures efficient sensorimotor timing, which is evidenced by increased stability in beat synchronization. Conversely, when the global configuration is disrupted, strong priors cannot be established, and the brain becomes insensitive to the biological nature of local motion; consequently, local motion has no significant effect on synchronization performance. The findings align with Bayesian theory and offer a novel perspective on the mechanisms underlying BM timing process. Related Articles | Metrics

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Spatial location is harder to remove from working memory than non-spatial features REN Guofang, DING Xiaowei, ZHANG Yingchao, WANG Shengyuan 2026, 58 (6):  1028-1041.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1028 Abstract ( 7 )   Working memory (WM) is a limited-capacity system, its functioning relies heavily on the ability to remove no-longer-relevant information. While previous research has primarily focused on the removal of entire objects, it remains unclear whether all features within an object share a common fate during removal. In particular, given the privileged status of spatial location across various cognitive processes, it is an open question whether location information is treated differently during removal. To answer this question, we directly compared the removal of spatial and non-spatial features from WM. We proposed two competing hypotheses: The location-specific hypothesis assumed that spatial location was more difficult to remove from WM than non-spatial features, due to its central role in object representation. In contrast, the location-non-specific hypothesis assumed that spatial and non-spatial features share similar removal difficulties. To test these hypotheses, we conducted two experiments with 55 participants (N = 26 in Experiment 1; N = 29 in Experiment 2). We employed a newly developed paradigm combining retro-cue with a change-detection task. On each trial, participants memorized a single object defined by multiple features (e.g., color and location). After a 500-ms delay, a retro-cue indicated the task-relevant feature, and participants were explicitly instructed to remove the uncued feature from WM. Following a 1000-ms delay, a probe appeared, and participants judged whether the cued feature had changed. Crucially, the uncued (task-irrelevant) feature changed in 50% of the trials, allowing us to quantify residual interference from information that should have been removed. The critical measure was the interference effect, defined as the difference in reaction time (RTs) between trials with and without a change in the task-irrelevant feature. If removal is successful, changes in the task-irrelevant feature should produce little or no interference. In Experiment 1, we observed greater interference when spatial location was the task-irrelevant feature compared to when a non-spatial feature was irrelevant. This finding supports the location-specific hypothesis. However, because different feature types were tested under separate task conditions, it remained possible that the observed difference reflected task-related confounds (e.g., differing task difficulty). To address this concern, we conducted experiment 2, which tested spatial and non-spatial features within a unified task structure, eliminating between-condition differences. The results replicated those of Experiment 1: changes to task-irrelevant locations produced reliable interference, whereas changes to task-irrelevant non-spatial features did not. Across both experiments, we found consistent evidence that spatial location is more difficult to remove from WM than non-spatial features. This finding supports location-specific hypothesis. Taken together, our study supported the privileged status of spatial location in WM removal. Related Articles | Metrics

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The duration reproduction task facilitates cross-modal serial dependence in duration perception KOU Congchao, LI Baolin, ZHAI Xiaofei 2026, 58 (6):  1042-1058.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1042 Abstract ( 5 )   The serial dependence effect refers to the influence of immediately preceding experiences on subsequent perceptual processing. Previous research has identified two types of serial dependence in the duration bisection task: a repulsive stimulus serial dependence effect and an attractive response serial dependence effect. Notably, both effects have been shown to exhibit modality specificity, meaning they do not generalize across sensory modalities such as vision and audition. Considering the distinctions between duration bisection and duration reproduction tasks, it remains unclear whether similar stimulus and response serial dependence effects also occur in duration reproduction, and whether they generalize across sensory modalities. In the present study, we investigated serial dependence and its cross-modal effects in the duration reproduction task, and further assessed how task paradigm shapes cross-modal stimulus and response serial dependence in duration perception. The duration reproduction task and generalized linear models were used across three experiments. In Experiment 1, 24 participants with no prior exposure to the task completed visual and auditory duration reproduction tasks in separate blocks. Participants reproduced the duration of a test stimulus—one of five durations ranging from 500 to 1200 ms in equal logarithmic steps—by pressing and holding a button for the matching duration. Experiment 2 involved a new group of 25 participants and followed a similar procedure, except that visual and auditory stimuli were pseudorandomly presented within a single block. In Experiment 3, 32 different participants completed both duration reproduction and duration bisection tasks. The reproduction task was identical to that in Experiment 2, while in the bisection task, participants judged whether the test stimulus was longer or shorter than an intermediate reference stimulus once it disappeared. The results of Experiment 1 showed that the previous stimulus and previous reproduction exerted opposite effects on serial dependence: current duration estimates were repelled by the prior stimulus duration (repulsive stimulus serial dependence) but attracted toward the prior reproduction (attractive response serial dependence). Experiment 2 further indicated that both stimulus and response serial dependence effects could partially generalize across visual and auditory modalities, contrasting with the modality-specific effects observed in earlier studies employing the duration bisection task. However, the test durations in Experiment 2 were longer than those typically employed in previous duration bisection tasks. To rule out any influence of test duration and to further investigate the impact of task paradigm on cross-modal serial dependence, we conducted Experiment 3. Consistent with Experiment 2, both stimulus and response serial dependence effects partially generalized across modalities in the duration reproduction task. In contrast, in the duration bisection task, both effects remained modality-specific, aligning with earlier studies. These findings suggest that task paradigm plays a crucial role in modulating cross-modal serial dependence in duration perception. These results provide evidence that both previous stimulus and previous responses affect subsequent duration perception, eliciting a repulsive stimulus serial dependence effect and an attractive response serial dependence effect, respectively. This indicates that distinct mechanisms underlie the use of prior stimulus and response information in duration processing. Moreover, task paradigm modulates the cross-modal effects of serial dependence in duration perception. One possible explanation is that reproduction response facilitates integration of visual and auditory temporal encoding, diminishing categorical distinctions between modalities and thereby promoting cross-modal stimulus and response serial dependence effects. These results indicate that stimulus serial dependence is not solely explained by low-level perceptual adaptation but also involves higher-level cognitive processing, whereas response serial dependence reflects more than mechanical decision inertia, involving the integration of response strategies across trials. Related Articles | Metrics

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Dynamic impression updating of face trustworthiness based on nonverbal cues and the moderating role of social distance HE Tingting, WU Tianlang, JI Luyan, CHEN Wenfeng, GAO Xiaolan 2026, 58 (6):  1059-1076.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1059 Abstract ( 8 )   Most previous studies on facial impression updating have focused on verbal cues. The patterns based on nonverbal cues, and how these patterns change with target-cue similarity remain inconsistent. Moreover, while physical trait similarity (i.e., target-cue similarity) has been widely examined, the role of psychosocial factors remains underexplored. For example, the effects of social distance (between evaluators/targets and nonverbal cues) on impression updating and the underlying cognitive mechanisms are still unclear. To address these questions, the present study adopted a classical impression updating paradigm. In this paradigm, participants first rated a target face presented alone, and then rated it again when it was presented alongside a nonverbal cue face. The difference between these two ratings served as the measure of facial impression updating. Crucially, an imagination paradigm was inserted between the two ratings to manipulate social distance. Specifically, in Experiment 1, participants were told that the cue faces had rated their own photo with a preset rating of friendship willingness to manipulate evaluator-cue distance, whereas in Experiment 2, they were informed that the target and cue faces had rated each other's photos with similarly preset ratings to manipulate target-cue distance. Furthermore, across two experiments, eye tracking data were recorded during the rating phases. To facilitate comparison with prior work on verbal cues, we focused the investigation on the trustworthiness dimension. The results of both experiments converged on three main findings. First, unlike the predominant assimilation effects typically observed with verbal cues, impression updating based on nonverbal cues exhibited a dynamic pattern that shifted between assimilation and contrast. Second, social distance (both evaluator-cue and target-cue) generally led to a cross-dimensional assimilation effect on trustworthiness updating, although a cross-dimensional contrast effect also emerged under specific conditions. Third, social distance moderated the magnitude of impression updating: closer social distance was associated with a greater degree of impression enhancement. Importantly, this moderating effect was mediated in both experiments by shifts in observers' relative attention between the target and the cue. The specific mediation pathways, however, differed between the two experiments. In Experiment 1, closer evaluator-cue distance reduced relative attention to the target's eyes, thereby attenuating updating. Conversely, in Experiment 2, closer target-cue distance increased relative attention to the target's nose, thus enhancing updating. In both cases, the primary effect was on the degree of trustworthiness enhancement. Taken together, the current study provides novel evidence for a dynamic pattern of facial impression updating based on nonverbal cues, clarifying how social distance moderates this process and its underlying cognitive mechanisms. To further advance this line of research, future studies within the “evaluator-target-cue” triad framework should employ more precise manipulations of social distance, incorporate dynamic social interaction paradigms, and investigate the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. Related Articles | Metrics

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Processual search mechanisms in creative problem solving under different search space constraints LIU Di, WANG Yanyue, CHEN Qunlin, QIU Jiang 2026, 58 (6):  1077-1089.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1077 Abstract ( 5 )   Creative thinking relies on dynamic interactions between associative idea generation and cognitive control, and semantic search processes are at the core of this system. However, traditional Remote Associates Test (RAT) paradigms lack fine-grained control over search space constraints and overlook the dynamic nature of the creative thinking process. This study aimed to explore how search space constraints modulate semantic search strategies and patterns during creative problem-solving, using a newly developed Multi-dimensional RAT (MD-RAT) to address these limitations. We ran two separate experiments for this research. In Experiment 1, we developed and validated the MD-RAT. This task adjusts search space constraints by changing the number of cue dimensions (shape, function, pairing) that link cue words to the target word. A total of 265 healthy undergraduates participated in material validation and psychometric testing. We measured participants' task accuracy and response times, and tested how these task results correlated with their creative achievement, personality openness, and verbal fluency. In Experiment 2, we recruited 42 participants and used a within-subjects design to directly compare high- and low-constraint conditions. We analyzed both behavioral performance (accuracy, number of responses) and fine-grained process indicators, including semantic similarity, category switching, and the sequential dependency of responses. Our results first confirmed that the MD-RAT has good reliability and validity. Across both high- and low-constraint conditions, participants' task accuracy was significantly correlated with creative achievement, openness, and verbal fluency. We also found clear differences between the two conditions: the high-constraint condition had higher accuracy and fewer total responses than the low-constraint condition, while the low-constraint condition saw far more category switching. Our semantic similarity analyses gave a clear view of the search strategies participants used: in high-constraint conditions, people adopted local search strategies centered on dominant cues, with higher intra-cue than inter-cue similarity. In contrast, low constraints led to global search with more frequent semantic jumps. Besides, we found that search patterns differed that low constraints showed progressive increases in semantic similarity to targets, while high constraints displayed abrupt similarity spikes near solutions. These findings make it clear that search space constraints systematically shape the creative thinking process. High constraints support focused, efficient local search, while low constraints encourage open, divergent global exploration. Beyond this, the MD-RAT provides a robust tool for investigating dynamic semantic search mechanisms, and helps us better understand how associative strategies and cognitive control work together to support creative problem solving. Related Articles | Metrics

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Differential predictions of various types of mind-wandering on creative thinking and the underlying neural mechanisms LI Yadan, XIE Cong, ZHANG Jiyu, SU Jiahao 2026, 58 (6):  1090-1112.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1090 Abstract ( 4 )   Mind-wandering (MW), a prevalent mental experience, has been linked to creative thinking, but empirical findings remain inconsistent. Some research suggests that mind-wandering can enhance creative thinking, while other studies show no significant relationship. This inconsistency may arise from treating mind-wandering as a unitary construct, neglecting its heterogeneous nature. To address this gap, the present study used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to investigate the distinct relationships between different types of mind-wandering and creative thinking, alongside their underlying neural correlates, at both trait and state levels. In Experiment 1 (trait level), resting-state brain activity was recorded via fNIRS. Participants completed the Generation and Selection Questionnaire (GSQ) to assess creative thinking at the trait level and the Short Imaginal Processes Inventory (SIPI) to measure positive-constructive daydreaming (PCD) and guilty-dysphoric daydreaming (GDD). Results showed that PCD mediated three distinct pathways: the positive relationship between functional connectivity of the bilateral superior temporal gyri and creative idea generation, the negative relationship between functional connectivity of the frontal pole and left middle temporal gyrus and creative idea generation, and the positive relationship between functional connectivity of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and right inferior frontal gyrus and creative idea selection. Experiment 2 (state level) employed a creative incubation paradigm. Brain activity was recorded during an Alternative Uses Task (AUT). The Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) served as the incubation period, during which thought probes assessed deliberate (MW-d), spontaneous (MW-s), task-related (MW-r) and task-unrelated (MW-u) mind-wandering. The findings revealed that MW-r was significantly associated with higher post-incubation AUT originality, whereas MW-u showed no such association. At the neural level, MW-r was linked to decreased functional connectivity between the left inferior frontal gyrus and left supramarginal gyrus, as well as between bilateral inferior frontal gyri, and to increased dynamic functional connectivity between the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and right inferior frontal gyrus. These findings elucidate the specific types of mind-wandering that are associated with creative thinking, providing a multi-level neural account that helps resolve previous contradictory findings and deepens our understanding of the adaptive potential of mind-wandering. Related Articles | Metrics

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Abnormally weakened sense of agency in schizophrenia: Evidence from behavioral and ERP studies PAN Chaochao, XUE Meimei, YIN Yulong, ZHOU Aibao 2026, 58 (6):  1113-1131.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1113 Abstract ( 4 )   Mental disorders have become both a severe and costly global public health issue and prominent societal challenge. Mental illnesses not only contribute to a substantial disease burden but also represent a major cause of disability worldwide. Among mental disorders, schizophrenia is a severe psychotic illness characterized by high risk, high disease burden, significant functional impairment, and chronic progression. Furthermore, the disorder is closely associated with agency disturbances. However, the alterations in agency and clinical correlation with symptoms remain incompletely understood. We investigated the manifestations of abnormal agency in schizophrenia and clarified the relationship between abnormalities and psychiatric symptoms. Accordingly, we further explored the neural mechanisms underlying the aberrant agency in schizophrenia at an electrophysiological level. Experiment 1 was a behavioral study in which a 2 (type: schizophrenia patients, healthy controls) × 2 (task: baseline, action) × 5 (interval: 100 ms, 300 ms, 500 ms, 700 ms, 900 ms) mixed design was used to investigate the manifestations of abnormal agency. We conducted correlation analyses between indicators of the agency and psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. Experiment 2 was an ERP study in which the neural mechanisms underlying agency deficits were clarified by examining motor intention and sensory prediction. Behaviorally, compared to healthy controls, schizophrenia exhibited significantly lower agency ratings, prolonged time interval estimations in action task, and attenuated intentional binding. Critically, the degree of agency disturbances positively correlated with positive symptoms, thereby suggesting that patients display a weakened agency, and pathologically weakened agency is closely linked to positive symptoms. In neural activity, in the motor intention stage, patients with schizophrenia exhibited neural impairment, specifically manifested as a significantly reduced amplitude gain of the readiness potential in the action task compared with healthy controls, despite the presence of the readiness potential. In the sensory prediction, patients exhibited relatively preserved predictive inhibitory processing of self-generated sensory stimuli, as evidenced by the lack of significant group differences in N1 and P2 suppression. Therefore, the attenuated sense of agency observed in schizophrenia may primarily stem from neural deficits in the motor preparation. This study demonstrates a significantly weakened agency in schizophrenia, which was positively linked to positive symptoms. In addition, this weakened agency may be associated with impaired motor intention. Future intervention research should prioritize motor intention-related regions as potential targets to improve the sense of agency in schizophrenia. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of virtual reality learning contexts on foreign language word production: Behavioral and EEG evidence LIU Cong, LIU Qiuxia, ZHU Mengrui, JIAO Lu, WANG Ruiming 2026, 58 (6):  1132-1142.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1132 Abstract ( 5 )   Vocabulary is the foundational unit of language, making word learning a key pillar of language acquisition. However, previous research has shown that word learning in a foreign language can present challenges for many individuals, particularly for adults. While some assumptions emphasize a critical period of language learning, other theories and empirical evidence point out that learning contexts play a key role. For example, compared to traditional classroom settings, immersive study abroad settings offer contextualized, real-life experience that can enhance foreign language learning outcomes. With the widespread promotion and development of innovative technologies, immersive virtual reality (VR) contexts may have similar effects given their ability to simulate language-enriching experiences through exposure to multiple types of sensory and motor information. However, very little is known about how VR contributes to foreign language learning, especially the novel word production. The present study employed EEG technology to investigate how an immersive VR context affects novel word learning, particularly word production, and to compare these effects with those of a picture-word (PW) association learning context. During three days of learning sessions, 29 Chinese speakers were asked to learn German words, with half of words being learned in an VR context, and half via PW association context. Following three days of learning phases, participants completed the picture naming task to measure novel word learning on Day 4 and two weeks later. In the immediate post-test on Day 4, behavioral and EEG data were recorded, and in the delayed post-test two weeks later, only behavioral data were recorded. The results of the immediate post-test showed that compared to PW-learned words, there was better behavioral performance on VR-learned words, along with decreased P200 (in the time window of 150-250 ms) and LPC (in the time window of 400-550 ms) amplitudes. Time-frequency representation analyses further revealed reduced μ power (8-12 Hz) and θ power (4-7 Hz) for VR-learned words relative to PW-learned words. However, the benefits of VR-learned words did not emerge in the delayed post-test. Overall, the findings of the present study provide the first evidence that an immersive VR context with a rich sensory experience can have facilitative effects on novel word production. Our study also offers neural evidence for embodied cognition theory and social second language learning theory through immersive learning. It will be highly beneficial for our understanding of novel word learning if future studies continue to systematically investigate the effects of immersive learning contexts. Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of emotional valence and response orientation on helping behavior in young children: Evidence from behavior and fNIRS ZHANG Wenjie, LONG Ruyi, LI Miaoqing, FAN Wei, FU Xiaolan 2026, 58 (6):  1143-1159.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1143 Abstract ( 8 )   Helping behavior, a typical form of prosocial behavior, refers to voluntary actions in which individuals attend to and assist others in escaping from undesirable situations. Early childhood represents a critical period for the frequent occurrence of helping behaviors in young children. Although various factors influence children's helping behaviors, emotion may serve as a key factor. Individual emotional experiences encompass not only the emotional valence dimension (positive vs. negative) but also the emotional response orientation dimension (self oriented vs. other-oriented). However, little is known about how emotional valence and emotional response orientation jointly influence helping behaviors and the underlying neural mechanisms in young children. Therefore, this study systematically investigated these questions through three experiments. In Experiment 1 (N = 259, M = 5.48 years, SD = 0.76 years, 127 boys), 4- to 6-year-old participants were randomly assigned to positive, neutral, or negative emotion conditions. We used the gift paradigm to induce corresponding emotions and then examined helping behaviors using a spilled-pencils task. Building on Experiment 1, Experiment 2 (N = 180, M = 5.39 years, SD = 0.79 years, 98 boys) randomly assigned 4- to 6-year-old participants to positive or negative emotion groups, with emotional induction under two emotional response orientation conditions (self-oriented vs. other-oriented). Participants then completed the spilled-pencils task. Building on Experiment 2, Experiment 3 (N = 34, M = 5.38 years, SD = 0.33 years, 17 boys) focused on the neural mechanisms underlying the effect of emotional valence on 5-year-old children's helping behaviors under self-oriented conditions. Five-year-old participants were randomly assigned to self-oriented positive or self-oriented negative emotion groups. After emotion induction using the gift paradigm, helping behaviors were examined in the hill paradigm involving puppet characters displayed on screen, while functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to record brain activation throughout the process. Experiment 1 revealed that compared to negative and neutral emotions, positive emotions significantly promoted helping behaviors in young children aged 4 to 6 years. Experiment 2 found that other-oriented negative emotions elicited more helping behaviors than self-oriented negative emotions, whereas no significant difference was observed between self-oriented and other-oriented positive emotions. Experiment 3's fNIRS data revealed differentiated neural activation patterns underlying helping behaviors under self-oriented emotional conditions in 5-year-old children. Under self-oriented negative emotions, children's helping behaviors were accompanied by higher activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), whereas under self-oriented positive emotions, helping behaviors were accompanied by higher activation in the middle temporal gyrus (MTG). These findings indicate that helping behaviors are influenced not only by emotional valence but also moderated by emotional response orientation. Under self-oriented negative emotions, 5-year-old children's helping behaviors may primarily rely on a cognitive control pathway, whereas under self-oriented positive emotions, helping behaviors may primarily rely on an empathy-altruism pathway. These findings have important implications for understanding the development of prosocial behavior in early childhood. Related Articles | Metrics

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Beyond the screen: Sports video game training can better enhance children's executive functions MA Chao, ZHAO Lu, ZHAO Xin 2026, 58 (6):  1160-1182.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1160 Abstract ( 4 )   Although executive functions continue to develop throughout an individual's lifespan, childhood— characterized by rapid development and heightened plasticity— is widely recognized as the most critical period in this regard. Sports video game training, an innovative approach integrating physical sport with cognitive tasks, has demonstrated promising potential to enhance executive function in children. However, the differential effects of various combinations of sports and video game elements on children's executive functions—as well as the respective roles of cognitive engagement and sport intensity in facilitating these effects in the motor-cognitive domain—warrant further exploration. This study aimed to identify which form of sports video game training is most beneficial for enhancing children's executive functions, through two innovative intervention experiments. Experiment 1, including 90 children (mean age = 11.34 ± 0.48 years), employed an integrated training mode (sports video game training) and a combined training mode (sports + video game training) to examine their differential effects on children's executive functions through a 6-week intervention (3 sessions per week, 30 minutes per session). Results demonstrated that sports video game training significantly enhanced children's response inhibition and working memory updating abilities, with effects markedly superior to those of sports + video game training and the control group. However, interference inhibition and attention switching yielded no significant improvement across training conditions. A supplementary experiment further revealed that compared with young adults, children derived greater cognitive benefits from sports video game training, likely attributable to their higher neural plasticity during this rapid developmental period of executive functions. This finding provides important evidence for prioritizing the integrated training mode in pediatric populations. Experiment 2 included 120 children (mean age = 12.44 ± 0.61 years) and adopted a 2 (sport intensity: high vs. low) × 2 (cognitive engagement: high vs. low) experimental design to further elucidate the roles of sport intensity and cognitive engagement as mechanisms underlying the effects of sports video game training on executive function. Results indicated that, compared with sport intensity, cognitive engagement exerted a more significant and enduring facilitative effect on children's response inhibition, with a substantially larger effect size (η2p = 0.379) than sport intensity (η2p = 0.140). Moreover, the advantage of high cognitive engagement amplified progressively with extended training duration. Regarding working memory updating, although both sport intensity and cognitive engagement contributed positively, they exhibited no significant interaction effect, suggesting that these two factors may influence executive functions through independent neural pathways—sport intensity via a “physiological arousal-resource allocation” pathway and cognitive engagement through a “task challenge-neural modulation” pathway. In conclusion, this study revealed the significant effects of sports video game training in enhancing children's executive functions as well as the underlying mechanisms, providing novel empirical support for embodied cognition theory and the cognitive stimulation hypothesis, while also offering scientific evidence for executive function interventions in educational practice. Future research should prioritize the integrated training mode, strengthen cognitive task design, and flexibly adjust sport intensity according to children's age characteristics and individual differences, while also investigating optimal dosage parameters and the long-term sustainability of training effects to maximize intervention outcomes. Related Articles | Metrics

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Trajectories of parental educational involvement before and after China' s “double reduction” policy and their differential effects on primary school students' learning engagement and academic achievement MU Yingqi, XU Penghui, WU Yijun, QI Yue, Lou Yan, YU Xiao 2026, 58 (6):  1183-1196.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1183 Abstract ( 5 )   Since China' s “Double Reduction” policy was implemented in 2021, educational focus has broadened from solely academic outcomes to include students' learning processes. However, few longitudinal studies have examined how this policy has altered parental educational involvement and how such changes subsequently influence students' learning engagement and academic performance. Parental involvement is a key determinant of children' s academic outcomes. The “Double Reduction” policy, while reducing student burdens, also redefines parental roles, potentially altering the quality and dimensions of their involvement. Yet, prior research lacks longitudinal evidence characterizing the developmental trajectories of its three core subdimensions (i.e., emotional, intellectual, and behavioral involvement) across the policy transition period. This longitudinal study addresses this gap by investigating how baseline levels and change rates of these subdimensionspredict students' learning engagement and academic achievement two years later. We recruited a cluster sample of 323 primary school students from two schools in Shandong Province, China. Data were collected at three waves: baseline (June 2021, Wave 1), 1.5 years later (Wave 2), and 2 years later (Wave 3). Participants' mean age at baseline was 8.89 years (SD = 0.94, range = 7 to 11 years old; 47.82% boys). Parental involvement was measured using a validated Parental Involvement Scale across all three waves. Students' learning engagement was assessed via self-report at Waves 1 and 3 using a Learning Engagement Scale. Academic achievement (final grades) was obtained from school records at Wave 3. Demographic covariates were collected at baseline. We applied latent growth modeling in Mplus 8.3 to (a) estimate unconditional linear growth trajectories for emotional, intellectual, and behavioral involvement across the three waves; (b) estimate individual differences in intercepts (initial levels) and slopes (change rates) and their interrelations; and (c) test conditional latent growth models, including interactions between intercepts and slopes, to predict Wave 3 learning engagement and academic achievement, controlling for baseline age and learning engagement. Several findings were obtained. First, unconditional latent models showed that parental involvement's sub-dimensions (emotional, intellectual, and behavior involvement) exhibited a linear decreasing trend before and after the implementation of the “double reduction”. Second, the individual differences in parental involvement among primary school parents demonstrated a stable developmental pattern over time. Third, after controlling for age and learning engagement at Wave 1, conditional latent growth models showed that emotional and behavior involvement had cumulative effects on students' learning engagement under the background of “double reduction.” In terms of academic performance, the change rates of emotional involvement significantly predicted academic performance, while intellectual involvement showed no significant effects on either learning engagement or academic performance. Supported by the amplification model, students with a low initial level of parental behavioral involvement experienced a more rapid decline in academic performance when the decline rate of behavior involvement accelerated. In contrast, students with high initial levels of behavioral involvement experienced slower declines in academic performance, even when they experienced faster rates of decline. The present study makes both theoretical and practical contributions. First, this study provided a comprehensive overview of the developmental trajectory of parental involvement before and after the “double reduction” policy among Chinese primary school children by examining initial levels, change rates, and their interrelationships. Second, these results underscore the differential effects of the initial level and growth rates of different dimensions of parental involvement on learning engagement and on academic achievement. Third, this study emphasizes the importance of prioritizing both the initial level and change rate of behavioral involvement in fostering children's learning and the necessity of high-quality parental involvement for academic development. Practically, it highlights the critical importance of sustaining high-quality behavioral involvement and provides evidence for tailoring family support strategies and school-home collaboration in the post-policy context. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of social norm types on pro-environmental behavior: The moderating role of moral identity and fNIRS evidence REN Mengmeng, LI Jin, ZHONG Yiping, YANG Lijun 2026, 58 (6):  1197-1212.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1197 Abstract ( 7 )   Amid escalating ecological crises, such as climate change and resource consumption, promoting pro-environmental behavior(PEB) has become critical for sustainable development. PEB often unfolds within social dilemmas that require individuals to prioritize collective and ecological well-being over immediate self-interest. However, because the benefits of such behaviors are typically delayed and uncertain, maintaining sustained engagement remains challenging. Social norms serve as essential social cues that regulate individual behavior and guide collective decision-making. Although both injunctive and descriptive norms can promote PEB, previous studies have suggested that they operate through distinct psychological mechanisms. Although morally prescriptive, injunctive norms often lack enduring motivational strength. By contrast, descriptive norms, which reflect perceptions of group consensus, tend to be adopted more readily and demonstrate greater intervention effects. Scholars have suggested that activating individuals' moral identities may offer a promising solution for enhancing the effectiveness of injunctive norms. Moral identity, which reflects the extent to which moral values are incorporated into one's self-concept, can enhance an individual's likelihood of regarding environmental behavior as an ethical obligation, thereby intensifying their responsiveness to injunctive cues. To systematically examine the moderating role of moral identity across different types of social norms and uncover the underlying neural mechanisms, the present study used the Greater Good Game paradigm in combination with functional near-infrared spectroscopy(fNIRS). Participants engaged in a decision-making task that involved trade-offs among self-interest, cooperation, and pro-environmental options under injunctive or descriptive norm conditions. Moral identity activation was experimentally manipulated to examine its moderating role and cortical hemodynamic responses were recorded concurrently recorded. Behavioral choice data and multinomial processing tree(MPT) model analyses indicated that, under the moral identity activation condition, injunctive norms significantly enhanced individuals' PEB and latent pro-environmental tendencies compared with descriptive norms. In contrast, in the control condition without moral identity activation, descriptive norms exhibited relatively higher latent pro-environmental tendencies than injunctive norms, although the difference in behavioral choice proportions did not reach statistical significance. The neuroimaging results further demonstrated that moral identity activation elicited stronger activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(dlPFC), reflecting enhanced cognitive control and inhibition of self-serving tendencies. Moreover, the combination of injunctive norms and moral identity elicited substantial activation in the orbitofrontal cortex(OFC) and medial prefrontal cortex(mPFC), regions linked to moral valuation, emotional regulation, and social decision-making. In contrast, descriptive norms primarily stimulate the right temporoparietal junction(rTPJ), a region associated with social cognition and perspective-taking. In conclusion, this study reveals the distinct neural pathways through which social norms shape PEB and highlights the crucial role of moral identity in enhancing normative interventions. These findings have important implications for policy and practice. By combining injunctive norms with moral identity, educational or promotional interventions can guide individuals to regard PEB as an ethical obligation, thereby effectively promoting such behavior. Simultaneously, leveraging descriptive norms—through community role models, media coverage, or collective initiatives—provides stable and broadly applicable behavioral references, reinforcing public engagement in environmental practices. Taken together, these insights support the development of neuroscience-informed strategies to promote sustainable behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparison of risky and intertemporal choice processes: An equivalence conversion paradigm of probability and time ZHOU Lei, LI Litong, LIANG Zhuyuan, LI Shu, HUI Qingshan, ZHANG Lei 2026, 58 (6):  1213-1236.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1213 Abstract ( 5 )   Risky choice (RC) and intertemporal choice (IC) are two fundamental decision-making categories essential to people's daily life. The former involves selecting among outcomes with varying probabilities, whereas the latter requires making decisions across different time points. These domains share similarities regarding theoretical developments, behavioral effects, and neural bases. A critical challenge persists because, although previous studies have revealed that RC and IC involve similar cognitive processes, findings remain inconsistent regarding their precise underlying mechanisms. Examining the similarities and differences between RC and IC from a decision process perspective contributes to the development of a generalized decision-making framework and clarifies the boundaries of its applicability. However, existing studies lack direct comparisons and converging process evidence between these two decision types. Given that probability and time parameters influence decision preferences and processes, ensuring their comparability is essential when comparing RC and IC. Previous research has often used fixed parameters, neglecting the conversion between probability and time, as well as individual differences; such an approach potentially introduces biases in experimental results due to parameter effects and individual variability. To address these limitations, the present study initially developed a novel paradigm that subjectively equates probability to time and generates a unique set of parameters for each participant. Then, by incorporating eye-tracking technology, the research systematically investigated the cognitive mechanisms underlying RC and IC during single-outcome (Study 1) and dual-outcome (Study 2) tasks. Each study consisted of two phases. In Study 1 (N = 41, Mage = 27.14), each participant first generated pairs of approximately equivalent RC and IC options. Following the adaptive design optimization method, participants made choices between an RC and IC option possessing similar payoffs. The IC option was fixed, whereas the probability of the RC option was adjusted according to user responses until reaching an indifference point. Second, the study used these equivalent options to construct single-outcome RC and IC tasks and examined their underlying processes via eye-tracking technology. In Study 2 (N = 37, Mage = 26.31), the equivalence conversion paradigm operated in the opposite manner. That is, the RC option remained fixed, whereas the time parameter of the IC option was adjusted. The research then extended these findings by constructing double-outcome options, focusing on compensatory versus noncompensatory and alternative-based versus attribute-based rules. By integrating eye-tracking and hierarchical Bayesian modeling, the analysis examined local and holistic decision processes. The entire set of analyses aimed to (1) determine whether the decision processes of RC and IC are similar and (2) identify the computational model most suitable for both decisions. Regarding the first aim, results indicated that RC and IC share equivalence conversion points and comparable local decision processes, which reflect noncompensatory and attribute-based rules. However, RC and IC differ in holistic process characteristics, as IC undergoes a relatively more deliberate and deeper fashion than RC. Furthermore, as task complexity increased from single-outcome to dual-outcome scenarios, the process similarity between RC and IC increased, suggesting the adoption of more parallelized and simplified decision strategies. Regarding the second aim, computational modeling of process characteristics suggests that both types of decisions are consistent with nondiscounting models. Altogether, these results reveal that participants more likely follow the noncompensatory, attribute-based rule rather than the alternative-/attribute-based rule when deciding for RC and IC. To conclude, the present study demonstrates several key findings. (1) The equivalence conversion paradigm confirmed the existence of subjective equivalence points between probability and time. (2) After equivalence conversion, despite process-level differences, RC and IC exhibited consistency in core cognitive mechanisms. In both decision types, and contrary to classic discounting models, individuals seem not to follow compensatory, attribute-based rules, which undergo a “weighting and summing” or “time discounting” process. Instead, they more likely use simple heuristic rules hypothesized by nondiscounting models. (3) RC and IC demonstrated distinct behavioral preferences, process characteristics, and underlying mechanisms, such as differences in processing complexity and overall eye-movement dynamics. Overall, the research provides new perspectives on theoretical and methodological comparisons across different decision-making tasks and offers empirical support for the development of a more unified decision-making theory. Related Articles | Metrics