ISSN 0439-755X
CN 11-1911/B
CN 11-1911/B
Acta Psychologica Sinica ›› 2026, Vol. 58 ›› Issue (7): 1405-1427.doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1405
• Reports of Empirical Studies • Previous Articles Next Articles
WANG Xin, WU Yanhong(
)
Published:2026-07-25
Online:2026-05-15
Contact:
WU Yanhong
E-mail:wuyh@pku.edu.cn
Supported by:WANG Xin, WU Yanhong. (2026). The personality structure and cultural conceptualization of humility in Chinese culture. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 58(7), 1405-1427.
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URL: https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1405
| Meaning | Source | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| 敬 (Respect / Reverence) | ① “Qian (humility) means respect. Derived from the 'yan' (words) radical, with the phonetic 'jian'.” — Shuowen Jiezi (Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters) (Xu Shen) ② “Humility must be rooted in respect so as not to degenerate into hypocrisy, hence Xu directly uses respect to define humility.” — Shuowen Jiezi Yuezhu (Brief Annotations on Shuowen Jiezi) (Zhang Shunhui) | Exhibiting respect toward people and matters both internally and in action. |
| 让 (Yielding / Courtesy) | ① “Qian means light, to yield.” — Yupian: Yan Section (Jade Chapters) ② “Humility: the exalted are illuminated, the lowly cannot be surpassed; it is the ultimate fulfillment of the superior man.” — Tuanzhuan (Commentary on the Judgments, I Ching) | Exercising a certain degree of self-restraint, abiding by one's duty, and being courteous to others. |
| 兼 (不自足) (Concurrent / Not complacent) | ① “In my humble opinion, based on phonetics, qian likely refers to words of someone who is not self-satisfied. Those who know are aware that characters with the 'jian' phonetic often contain the meaning of being slight or insufficient.” — Jiweiju Xiaoxue Shulin: Shi Qian (Yang Shuda) ② “Qian means not being conceited.” — Zihui: Yan Section (Vocabulary Collection) | Possessing a proactive and enterprising attitude, not becoming smug or satisfied with current achievements. |
| 虚 (Empty / Modest) | ① “Qian means empty.” — Yupian: Yan Section ② “Qian means decrease.” — Kong Chao ③ “Qian: open-minded, not arrogant.” — Xinhua Dictionary | Realizing that what one originally possesses may also be lost, and avoiding complacency in the face of current achievements. |
| 通“嫌” (嫌疑) (Interchangeable with Xian / Suspicion) | ① “Noble but not boastful, trusted but not placing oneself in qian (suspicion).” — Xunzi: Zhongni ② “Qian is read as xian (suspicion). When trusted by the ruler, one does not place oneself under suspicion, preventing others from suspecting them of abusing power.” — Yang Jing | Remaining modest and cautious in conduct, avoiding material extravagance (complacency), and maintaining respect and yielding in interpersonal interactions. |
| 通“慊” (满足) (Interchangeable with Qian / Satisfaction) | ① “What is meant by 'making the thoughts sincere' is allowing no self-deception, as when we hate a bad smell or love a beautiful color. This is called self-qian (self-fulfillment/satisfaction).” — Liji: Daxue (Book of Rites: The Great Learning) ② “Qian is read as qian (satisfaction). It means being satisfied/satiated.” — Zheng Xuan ③ “Qian means happy and satisfied.” — Sishu Jizhu (Collected Commentaries on the Four Books) (Zhu Xi) | Having a sufficient understanding and proper positioning of oneself, avoiding insatiable greed. |
Table 1 Dictionary Definitions of Humility
| Meaning | Source | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| 敬 (Respect / Reverence) | ① “Qian (humility) means respect. Derived from the 'yan' (words) radical, with the phonetic 'jian'.” — Shuowen Jiezi (Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters) (Xu Shen) ② “Humility must be rooted in respect so as not to degenerate into hypocrisy, hence Xu directly uses respect to define humility.” — Shuowen Jiezi Yuezhu (Brief Annotations on Shuowen Jiezi) (Zhang Shunhui) | Exhibiting respect toward people and matters both internally and in action. |
| 让 (Yielding / Courtesy) | ① “Qian means light, to yield.” — Yupian: Yan Section (Jade Chapters) ② “Humility: the exalted are illuminated, the lowly cannot be surpassed; it is the ultimate fulfillment of the superior man.” — Tuanzhuan (Commentary on the Judgments, I Ching) | Exercising a certain degree of self-restraint, abiding by one's duty, and being courteous to others. |
| 兼 (不自足) (Concurrent / Not complacent) | ① “In my humble opinion, based on phonetics, qian likely refers to words of someone who is not self-satisfied. Those who know are aware that characters with the 'jian' phonetic often contain the meaning of being slight or insufficient.” — Jiweiju Xiaoxue Shulin: Shi Qian (Yang Shuda) ② “Qian means not being conceited.” — Zihui: Yan Section (Vocabulary Collection) | Possessing a proactive and enterprising attitude, not becoming smug or satisfied with current achievements. |
| 虚 (Empty / Modest) | ① “Qian means empty.” — Yupian: Yan Section ② “Qian means decrease.” — Kong Chao ③ “Qian: open-minded, not arrogant.” — Xinhua Dictionary | Realizing that what one originally possesses may also be lost, and avoiding complacency in the face of current achievements. |
| 通“嫌” (嫌疑) (Interchangeable with Xian / Suspicion) | ① “Noble but not boastful, trusted but not placing oneself in qian (suspicion).” — Xunzi: Zhongni ② “Qian is read as xian (suspicion). When trusted by the ruler, one does not place oneself under suspicion, preventing others from suspecting them of abusing power.” — Yang Jing | Remaining modest and cautious in conduct, avoiding material extravagance (complacency), and maintaining respect and yielding in interpersonal interactions. |
| 通“慊” (满足) (Interchangeable with Qian / Satisfaction) | ① “What is meant by 'making the thoughts sincere' is allowing no self-deception, as when we hate a bad smell or love a beautiful color. This is called self-qian (self-fulfillment/satisfaction).” — Liji: Daxue (Book of Rites: The Great Learning) ② “Qian is read as qian (satisfaction). It means being satisfied/satiated.” — Zheng Xuan ③ “Qian means happy and satisfied.” — Sishu Jizhu (Collected Commentaries on the Four Books) (Zhu Xi) | Having a sufficient understanding and proper positioning of oneself, avoiding insatiable greed. |
| Category | Sub-category | Definition | Example | Frequency |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Self-Effacement | Not taking oneself too seriously / self-deprecation | “One who is humble devalues himself to be below others.” (Zhouyi Zheng Kangcheng Zhu) | 5 |
| Self-Control | Being able to restrain one's desires | “The superior man uses humility to discipline himself.” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 3 | |
| Self-Improvement | Being proactive and improving oneself | “To be modest and obedient in serving a superior is the way of the enlightened.” (Zhouyi) | 2 | |
| Other-Enhancement | Caring for and promoting others | “The righteous meaning: Humility is to bend oneself and yield to others, putting others first and oneself last... thus all is well-received.” (Zhouyi Yaoyi) | 2 | |
| Non-contention | Doing great work without boasting | “Toiling but not boasting, possessing merit but not claiming virtue.” (Zhouyi) | 2 | |
| Persistence | Consistently maintaining a humble attitude | “Humility creates success. The superior man carries things through to the end.” (Zhouyi) | 8 | |
| Adhering to Principles | Not violating one's own principles | “Serving those above and below without seeking personal gain... not for the sake of pleasing others or merely for salary.” (Zhouyi) | 1 | |
| Not Seeking Reward | Not pursuing external rewards, but maintaining inner fulfillment | “Though there is fame, one does not seek a response; to be upright is auspicious, for auspiciousness comes from within.” (Zhouyi) | 2 | |
| Dialectical Thinking | High and Low (Hierarchy) | Respect for superiors and honor for subordinates | “Serving the ruler above and the toiling ministers below; everyone finds their proper place, thus all is beneficial.” (Zhouyi) | 3 |
| Abundance and Scarcity | Giving and balancing according to the quantity of things | “Within the earth, a mountain: Humility. The superior man reduces that which is too much and augments that which is too little.” (Zhouyi) | 6 | |
| Altitude (Position) | Benefiting those below from a high position; staying proactive from a low position | “The way of heaven flows downward and is full of light; the way of earth is lowly but moves upward.” (Zhouyi) | 6 | |
| Strength and Weakness | Exercising restraint and staying modest when one is powerful | “Using strength with humility; strength is thus preserved in its entirety.” (Zhouyi) | 3 | |
| Prosperity and Adversity | Maintaining humility in adversity to ultimately welcome good results | “Maintaining peace and holding fast to humility... then one can handle difficult circumstances.” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 1 | |
| Value | Personal Long-term Development | Humility leads to good results, while lack of it leads to disaster | “The superior man embodies humility to reach the end (success).” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 5 |
| Influence | Others will respect and follow a humble person | “A person is humble, yet people respect them; their path is full of light.” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 6 | |
| Morality and Etiquette | Humility is the key to morality and social rituals | “Humility is the handle of virtue... Humility is used to establish ritual/etiquette.” (Zhouyi) | 5 |
Table 2 Summary of Expressions Regarding “Qian” in the I Ching
| Category | Sub-category | Definition | Example | Frequency |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Self-Effacement | Not taking oneself too seriously / self-deprecation | “One who is humble devalues himself to be below others.” (Zhouyi Zheng Kangcheng Zhu) | 5 |
| Self-Control | Being able to restrain one's desires | “The superior man uses humility to discipline himself.” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 3 | |
| Self-Improvement | Being proactive and improving oneself | “To be modest and obedient in serving a superior is the way of the enlightened.” (Zhouyi) | 2 | |
| Other-Enhancement | Caring for and promoting others | “The righteous meaning: Humility is to bend oneself and yield to others, putting others first and oneself last... thus all is well-received.” (Zhouyi Yaoyi) | 2 | |
| Non-contention | Doing great work without boasting | “Toiling but not boasting, possessing merit but not claiming virtue.” (Zhouyi) | 2 | |
| Persistence | Consistently maintaining a humble attitude | “Humility creates success. The superior man carries things through to the end.” (Zhouyi) | 8 | |
| Adhering to Principles | Not violating one's own principles | “Serving those above and below without seeking personal gain... not for the sake of pleasing others or merely for salary.” (Zhouyi) | 1 | |
| Not Seeking Reward | Not pursuing external rewards, but maintaining inner fulfillment | “Though there is fame, one does not seek a response; to be upright is auspicious, for auspiciousness comes from within.” (Zhouyi) | 2 | |
| Dialectical Thinking | High and Low (Hierarchy) | Respect for superiors and honor for subordinates | “Serving the ruler above and the toiling ministers below; everyone finds their proper place, thus all is beneficial.” (Zhouyi) | 3 |
| Abundance and Scarcity | Giving and balancing according to the quantity of things | “Within the earth, a mountain: Humility. The superior man reduces that which is too much and augments that which is too little.” (Zhouyi) | 6 | |
| Altitude (Position) | Benefiting those below from a high position; staying proactive from a low position | “The way of heaven flows downward and is full of light; the way of earth is lowly but moves upward.” (Zhouyi) | 6 | |
| Strength and Weakness | Exercising restraint and staying modest when one is powerful | “Using strength with humility; strength is thus preserved in its entirety.” (Zhouyi) | 3 | |
| Prosperity and Adversity | Maintaining humility in adversity to ultimately welcome good results | “Maintaining peace and holding fast to humility... then one can handle difficult circumstances.” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 1 | |
| Value | Personal Long-term Development | Humility leads to good results, while lack of it leads to disaster | “The superior man embodies humility to reach the end (success).” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 5 |
| Influence | Others will respect and follow a humble person | “A person is humble, yet people respect them; their path is full of light.” (Hanshang Yizhuan) | 6 | |
| Morality and Etiquette | Humility is the key to morality and social rituals | “Humility is the handle of virtue... Humility is used to establish ritual/etiquette.” (Zhouyi) | 5 |
| Number | Scale Name | Author |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Honesty-humility Modesty facet | (Ashton & Lee, |
| 2 | The Big-Five Modesty Trait | (Costa & McCrae, |
| 3 | Modest Behavior Scale | (Chen et al., |
| 4 | Expressed Humility Scale | (Owens et al., |
| 5 | Relational Humility Scale | (Davis et al., |
| 6 | The Humility/Modesty Subscale of the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths | (Park et al., |
| 7 | Healthy humility inventory | (Quiros, |
| 8 | Humility subscale of the servant leadership survey | (van Dierendonck & Nuijten, |
| 9 | Intellectual Humility Scale | (McElroy et al., |
| 10 | the General Intellectual Humility Scale | (Leary et al., |
| 11 | the Porter Intellectual Humility Scale | (Porter & Schumann, |
| 12 | Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale | (Krumrei-Mancuso & Rouse, |
| 13 | Cultural Humility Scale | (Hook et al., |
| 14 | Specific Intellectual Humility Scale | (Hoyle et al., |
| 15 | Spiritual Humility Scale | (Davis et al., |
| 16 | Dispositional Humility Scale | (Landrum, |
| 17 | Humility subscale of the Schwartz values survey | (Schwartz et al., |
| 18 | Brief state humility scale | (Kruse et al., |
| 19 | Experiences of Humility Scale | (Davis et al., |
| 20 | Humility Scale | (Elliott, |
| 21 | Chinese Modesty Scale | (Xiong et al., |
| 22 | College Students' Self-Modesty Approval Rating Questionnaire | (Hu & Huang, |
| 23 | College Student Humility Questionnaire | (Xie & Wang, |
| 24 | Chinese Modesty Motivation Questionnaire | (Hu, |
| 25 | Middle School Student Modesty Scale | (Zhao, |
| 26 | Sincere Humility and Strategic Humility Scale | (Shi, |
Table 3 Summary of Previous Humility Scales
| Number | Scale Name | Author |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Honesty-humility Modesty facet | (Ashton & Lee, |
| 2 | The Big-Five Modesty Trait | (Costa & McCrae, |
| 3 | Modest Behavior Scale | (Chen et al., |
| 4 | Expressed Humility Scale | (Owens et al., |
| 5 | Relational Humility Scale | (Davis et al., |
| 6 | The Humility/Modesty Subscale of the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths | (Park et al., |
| 7 | Healthy humility inventory | (Quiros, |
| 8 | Humility subscale of the servant leadership survey | (van Dierendonck & Nuijten, |
| 9 | Intellectual Humility Scale | (McElroy et al., |
| 10 | the General Intellectual Humility Scale | (Leary et al., |
| 11 | the Porter Intellectual Humility Scale | (Porter & Schumann, |
| 12 | Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale | (Krumrei-Mancuso & Rouse, |
| 13 | Cultural Humility Scale | (Hook et al., |
| 14 | Specific Intellectual Humility Scale | (Hoyle et al., |
| 15 | Spiritual Humility Scale | (Davis et al., |
| 16 | Dispositional Humility Scale | (Landrum, |
| 17 | Humility subscale of the Schwartz values survey | (Schwartz et al., |
| 18 | Brief state humility scale | (Kruse et al., |
| 19 | Experiences of Humility Scale | (Davis et al., |
| 20 | Humility Scale | (Elliott, |
| 21 | Chinese Modesty Scale | (Xiong et al., |
| 22 | College Students' Self-Modesty Approval Rating Questionnaire | (Hu & Huang, |
| 23 | College Student Humility Questionnaire | (Xie & Wang, |
| 24 | Chinese Modesty Motivation Questionnaire | (Hu, |
| 25 | Middle School Student Modesty Scale | (Zhao, |
| 26 | Sincere Humility and Strategic Humility Scale | (Shi, |
| Dimension | Frequency | Meaning | Example Items |
|---|---|---|---|
| Self-view | 123 | Humble individuals have an accurate self-cognition, can recognize their own shortcomings, and remain open to new information. | “I am an ordinary person who is no better than others” (Ashton & Lee, “I am open to criticism” (Quiros, |
| Attitude toward power/status | 21 | Humble individuals believe they do not have privileges or special treatment. | “I deserve more influence and authority than most other people do (R)” (Ashton & Lee, |
| Self-improvement | 46 | Humble individuals continuously pursue self-improvement and strive to elevate themselves. | “Sincerely accept others' suggestions” (Chen et al., “I often thirst for knowledge” (Quiros, |
| Other-focus | 78 | Humble individuals care about and are mindful of the status, abilities, and needs of others. | “Find and appreciate others' strengths” (Chen et al., “This person is open to the ideas of others” (Owens et al., |
| Humble behavior | 45 | Humble individuals will exhibit humble behaviors such as not boasting or showing off. | “In front of others, attribute success to luck rather than my own ability” (Chen et al., “Not praise one's own strengths” (Chen et al., |
| General humility | 19 | Humble individuals generally exhibit a state of humility, identify with the value of humility, and view humility as a good quality. | “I am always humble about the good things that have happened to me” (Park et al., “I appreciate modest people, and am happy to interact with them” (Xiong et al., |
| Spiritual | 14 | Humble individuals recognize their smallness in the face of life/nature/the world, accept this positioning, and feel awe. | “I live in awe of the greatness of life” (Quiros, “He/she accepts his/her place in relation to the Sacred” (Davis et al., |
| Instrumentality | 42 | Using humility as a social tool and strategy to maintain a good personal image, or to avoid threats and achieve success in social interactions. | “I only behave modestly if it does not have significant negative outcomes for me” (Xiong et al., “I believe that when interacting with others, humility is an effective way of survival” (Shi, |
| Emotion and motivation | 9 | Humble individuals are unwilling to engage in self-enhancing behaviors and would feel uncomfortable if they did so. | “Whenever I have to describe my success to others, I feel uncomfortable” (Xie & Wang, “I would rather keep my achievements in my heart than talk about them outside” (Shi, |
Table 4 Categorization of Items from Humility Scales
| Dimension | Frequency | Meaning | Example Items |
|---|---|---|---|
| Self-view | 123 | Humble individuals have an accurate self-cognition, can recognize their own shortcomings, and remain open to new information. | “I am an ordinary person who is no better than others” (Ashton & Lee, “I am open to criticism” (Quiros, |
| Attitude toward power/status | 21 | Humble individuals believe they do not have privileges or special treatment. | “I deserve more influence and authority than most other people do (R)” (Ashton & Lee, |
| Self-improvement | 46 | Humble individuals continuously pursue self-improvement and strive to elevate themselves. | “Sincerely accept others' suggestions” (Chen et al., “I often thirst for knowledge” (Quiros, |
| Other-focus | 78 | Humble individuals care about and are mindful of the status, abilities, and needs of others. | “Find and appreciate others' strengths” (Chen et al., “This person is open to the ideas of others” (Owens et al., |
| Humble behavior | 45 | Humble individuals will exhibit humble behaviors such as not boasting or showing off. | “In front of others, attribute success to luck rather than my own ability” (Chen et al., “Not praise one's own strengths” (Chen et al., |
| General humility | 19 | Humble individuals generally exhibit a state of humility, identify with the value of humility, and view humility as a good quality. | “I am always humble about the good things that have happened to me” (Park et al., “I appreciate modest people, and am happy to interact with them” (Xiong et al., |
| Spiritual | 14 | Humble individuals recognize their smallness in the face of life/nature/the world, accept this positioning, and feel awe. | “I live in awe of the greatness of life” (Quiros, “He/she accepts his/her place in relation to the Sacred” (Davis et al., |
| Instrumentality | 42 | Using humility as a social tool and strategy to maintain a good personal image, or to avoid threats and achieve success in social interactions. | “I only behave modestly if it does not have significant negative outcomes for me” (Xiong et al., “I believe that when interacting with others, humility is an effective way of survival” (Shi, |
| Emotion and motivation | 9 | Humble individuals are unwilling to engage in self-enhancing behaviors and would feel uncomfortable if they did so. | “Whenever I have to describe my success to others, I feel uncomfortable” (Xie & Wang, “I would rather keep my achievements in my heart than talk about them outside” (Shi, |
| Item | Accurate Self- Perception | Other- Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self- Effacement | Self- Improvement | Communality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. I believe I am an ordinary person who is no better than others | 0.625 | 0.565 | ||||
| 2. I believe I am more special and outstanding than others in many ways R | ?0.863 | 0.651 | ||||
| 3. I believe I deserve more influence and power than most other people do R | ?0.833 | 0.682 | ||||
| 4. I think I am entitled to more respect than the average person is R | ?0.818 | 0.511 | ||||
| 5. I do not consider myself irreplaceable. | 0.514 | 0.380 | ||||
| 6. I do not feel that I am an important person within my group. | 0.534 | 0.549 | ||||
| 7. I focus more on others’ strengths than on their weaknesses | 0.610 | 0.340 | ||||
| 8. When interacting with others, I am happy to provide opportunities for them to showcase themselves | 0.497 | 0.357 | ||||
| 9. I recognize that people are often helpful to me | 0.515 | 0.336 | ||||
| 10. I encourage others to share their viewpoints | 0.546 | 0.367 | ||||
| 11. I often praise other people | 0.658 | 0.395 | ||||
| 12. I believe the future may not unfold as I expect | 0.558 | 0.370 | ||||
| 13. I believe that good things that happen to me may also bring negative consequences | 0.660 | 0.455 | ||||
| 14. I think that even if I know something in depth, I still don’t know it comprehensively | 0.456 | 0.325 | ||||
| 15. I recognize that what I think is right now may someday be proven wrong | 0.765 | 0.523 | ||||
| 16. I do not deliberately show off, but I do take action when I need to play a role | 0.614 | 0.367 | ||||
| 17. I avoid boasting about my achievements or abilities | 0.696 | 0.581 | ||||
| 18. I don't deliberately seek to draw attention to myself | 0.641 | 0.411 | ||||
| 19. I often compare myself with my past self to see if I have made progress | 0.613 | 0.346 | ||||
| 20. I often reflect on whether I have become slack after achieving certain accomplishments | 0.740 | 0.560 | ||||
| 21. I often reflect on myself | 0.676 | 0.492 | ||||
| Eigenvalue | 5.00 | 3.19 | 1.71 | 1.25 | 1.11 | |
| Variance Explained (%) | 21.51% | 12.44% | 5.62% | 3.46% | 2.49% | |
| Cumulative Variance Explained (%) | 21.51% | 33.95% | 39.57% | 43.04% | 45.26% |
Table 5 Exploratory Factor Analysis Results of the Chinese Humility Scale
| Item | Accurate Self- Perception | Other- Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self- Effacement | Self- Improvement | Communality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. I believe I am an ordinary person who is no better than others | 0.625 | 0.565 | ||||
| 2. I believe I am more special and outstanding than others in many ways R | ?0.863 | 0.651 | ||||
| 3. I believe I deserve more influence and power than most other people do R | ?0.833 | 0.682 | ||||
| 4. I think I am entitled to more respect than the average person is R | ?0.818 | 0.511 | ||||
| 5. I do not consider myself irreplaceable. | 0.514 | 0.380 | ||||
| 6. I do not feel that I am an important person within my group. | 0.534 | 0.549 | ||||
| 7. I focus more on others’ strengths than on their weaknesses | 0.610 | 0.340 | ||||
| 8. When interacting with others, I am happy to provide opportunities for them to showcase themselves | 0.497 | 0.357 | ||||
| 9. I recognize that people are often helpful to me | 0.515 | 0.336 | ||||
| 10. I encourage others to share their viewpoints | 0.546 | 0.367 | ||||
| 11. I often praise other people | 0.658 | 0.395 | ||||
| 12. I believe the future may not unfold as I expect | 0.558 | 0.370 | ||||
| 13. I believe that good things that happen to me may also bring negative consequences | 0.660 | 0.455 | ||||
| 14. I think that even if I know something in depth, I still don’t know it comprehensively | 0.456 | 0.325 | ||||
| 15. I recognize that what I think is right now may someday be proven wrong | 0.765 | 0.523 | ||||
| 16. I do not deliberately show off, but I do take action when I need to play a role | 0.614 | 0.367 | ||||
| 17. I avoid boasting about my achievements or abilities | 0.696 | 0.581 | ||||
| 18. I don't deliberately seek to draw attention to myself | 0.641 | 0.411 | ||||
| 19. I often compare myself with my past self to see if I have made progress | 0.613 | 0.346 | ||||
| 20. I often reflect on whether I have become slack after achieving certain accomplishments | 0.740 | 0.560 | ||||
| 21. I often reflect on myself | 0.676 | 0.492 | ||||
| Eigenvalue | 5.00 | 3.19 | 1.71 | 1.25 | 1.11 | |
| Variance Explained (%) | 21.51% | 12.44% | 5.62% | 3.46% | 2.49% | |
| Cumulative Variance Explained (%) | 21.51% | 33.95% | 39.57% | 43.04% | 45.26% |
| Model |  2 | df |  2/df | CFI | TLI | SRMR | AIC | BIC | RESEA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Five-factor model | 222.82 | 142 | 1.57 | 0.931 | 0.917 | 0.053 | 17336.66 | 17584.59 | 0.044 |
| Four-factor model | 383.87 | 146 | 2.63 | 0.740 | 0.696 | 0.104 | 17114.78 | 17346.20 | 0.075 |
| Three-factor model | 502.30 | 149 | 3.37 | 0.614 | 0.557 | 0.124 | 17250.14 | 17470.70 | 0.090 |
| Two-factor model | 568.22 | 151 | 3.76 | 0.544 | 0.484 | 0.112 | 17313.14 | 17526.20 | 0.097 |
| One-factor model | 662.60 | 152 | 5.36 | 0.442 | 0.372 | 0.119 | 17418.82 | 17628.20 | 0.107 |
Table 6 Comparison of Model Fit for the Humility Scale
| Model | 2 | df | 2/df | CFI | TLI | SRMR | AIC | BIC | RESEA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Five-factor model | 222.82 | 142 | 1.57 | 0.931 | 0.917 | 0.053 | 17336.66 | 17584.59 | 0.044 |
| Four-factor model | 383.87 | 146 | 2.63 | 0.740 | 0.696 | 0.104 | 17114.78 | 17346.20 | 0.075 |
| Three-factor model | 502.30 | 149 | 3.37 | 0.614 | 0.557 | 0.124 | 17250.14 | 17470.70 | 0.090 |
| Two-factor model | 568.22 | 151 | 3.76 | 0.544 | 0.484 | 0.112 | 17313.14 | 17526.20 | 0.097 |
| One-factor model | 662.60 | 152 | 5.36 | 0.442 | 0.372 | 0.119 | 17418.82 | 17628.20 | 0.107 |
Figure 1. Five-factor structure of the Chinese Humility Scale.
| Dimension | α Coefficient | Test-retest reliability | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n1 = 291 | n3 = 200 | n4 = 111 | n1’ = 265 | |
| Accurate Self-Perception | 0.77 | 0.88 | 0.81 | 0.72 |
| Other-Enhancement | 0.70 | 0.77 | 0.68 | 0.64 |
| Dialectical Thinking | 0.60 | 0.70 | 0.54 | 0.62 |
| Self-Effacement | 0.65 | 0.72 | 0.56 | 0.64 |
| Self-Improvement | 0.71 | 0.68 | 0.75 | 0.57 |
Table 7 Reliability of the Chinese Humility Scale
| Dimension | α Coefficient | Test-retest reliability | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n1 = 291 | n3 = 200 | n4 = 111 | n1’ = 265 | |
| Accurate Self-Perception | 0.77 | 0.88 | 0.81 | 0.72 |
| Other-Enhancement | 0.70 | 0.77 | 0.68 | 0.64 |
| Dialectical Thinking | 0.60 | 0.70 | 0.54 | 0.62 |
| Self-Effacement | 0.65 | 0.72 | 0.56 | 0.64 |
| Self-Improvement | 0.71 | 0.68 | 0.75 | 0.57 |
| Dimension | Accurate Self- Perception | Other- Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self- Effacement |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accurate Self-Perception | ||||
| Other-Enhancement | ?0.204*** | |||
| Dialectical Thinking | 0.135* | 0.235*** | ||
| Self-Effacement | 0.173** | 0.304*** | 0.368*** | |
| Self-Improvement | ?0.208*** | 0.470*** | 0.270*** | 0.285*** |
Table 8 Internal Correlations of the Chinese Humility Scale (n2 = 271)
| Dimension | Accurate Self- Perception | Other- Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self- Effacement |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accurate Self-Perception | ||||
| Other-Enhancement | ?0.204*** | |||
| Dialectical Thinking | 0.135* | 0.235*** | ||
| Self-Effacement | 0.173** | 0.304*** | 0.368*** | |
| Self-Improvement | ?0.208*** | 0.470*** | 0.270*** | 0.285*** |
| Variable | M | SD | Accurate Self-Perception | Other-Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self-Effacement | Self-Improvement |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Humility Scales | |||||||
| HEXACO Modesty | 12.73 | 2.45 | 0.620*** | ?0.095 | 0.298*** | 0.302*** | ?0.041 |
| Big Five Modesty | 34.62 | 5.99 | 0.461*** | 0.006 | 0.249*** | 0.360*** | 0.026 |
| Modest Behavior Scale | 147.36 | 14.91 | 0.248*** | 0.426*** | 0.334*** | 0.452*** | 0.380*** |
| Self-Deprecation | 32.17 | 5.57 | 0.177** | 0.174** | 0.361*** | 0.367*** | 0.259*** |
| Other-Enhancement | 66.37 | 6.68 | ?0.007 | 0.609*** | 0.300*** | 0.357*** | 0.486*** |
| Attention Avoidance | 48.83 | 7.80 | 0.353*** | 0.167** | 0.123* | 0.296*** | 0.126* |
| HEXACO Personality | |||||||
| Honesty-Humility | 51.80 | 9.11 | 0.338*** | 0.169** | 0.069 | 0.295*** | 0.093 |
| Emotionality | 52.89 | 7.05 | 0.224*** | 0.001 | 0.287*** | 0.033 | 0.086 |
| Extraversion | 54.83 | 9.10 | ?0.364*** | 0.454*** | ?0.112 | ?0.112 | 0.263*** |
| Agreeableness | 52.14 | 8.70 | ?0.091 | 0.378*** | ?0.028 | 0.178** | 0.126* |
| Conscientiousness | 54.96 | 7.92 | ?0.218*** | 0.413*** | ?0.023 | ?0.023 | 0.427*** |
| Openness to Experience | 55.98 | 9.17 | ?0.229*** | 0.384*** | 0.009 | 0.119* | 0.359*** |
| Altruism | 15.18 | 2.55 | 0.134* | 0.344*** | 0.062 | 0.217*** | 0.229*** |
| Other Personality Traits | |||||||
| Self-esteem | 29.94 | 5.00 | ?0.376*** | 0.321*** | ?0.072 | 0.030 | 0.237*** |
| Narcissism | 5.12 | 3.42 | ?0.518*** | ?0.014 | ?0.249*** | ?0.320*** | 0.029 |
| Dialectical Self | 127.64 | 12.54 | 0.197** | ?0.068 | 0.273*** | 0.071 | ?0.084 |
| Zhongyong Thinking | 73.21 | 7.81 | ?0.113 | 0.577*** | 0.236*** | 0.283*** | 0.397*** |
Table 9 Correlations Between the Chinese Humility Scale and Criterion Variables
| Variable | M | SD | Accurate Self-Perception | Other-Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self-Effacement | Self-Improvement |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Humility Scales | |||||||
| HEXACO Modesty | 12.73 | 2.45 | 0.620*** | ?0.095 | 0.298*** | 0.302*** | ?0.041 |
| Big Five Modesty | 34.62 | 5.99 | 0.461*** | 0.006 | 0.249*** | 0.360*** | 0.026 |
| Modest Behavior Scale | 147.36 | 14.91 | 0.248*** | 0.426*** | 0.334*** | 0.452*** | 0.380*** |
| Self-Deprecation | 32.17 | 5.57 | 0.177** | 0.174** | 0.361*** | 0.367*** | 0.259*** |
| Other-Enhancement | 66.37 | 6.68 | ?0.007 | 0.609*** | 0.300*** | 0.357*** | 0.486*** |
| Attention Avoidance | 48.83 | 7.80 | 0.353*** | 0.167** | 0.123* | 0.296*** | 0.126* |
| HEXACO Personality | |||||||
| Honesty-Humility | 51.80 | 9.11 | 0.338*** | 0.169** | 0.069 | 0.295*** | 0.093 |
| Emotionality | 52.89 | 7.05 | 0.224*** | 0.001 | 0.287*** | 0.033 | 0.086 |
| Extraversion | 54.83 | 9.10 | ?0.364*** | 0.454*** | ?0.112 | ?0.112 | 0.263*** |
| Agreeableness | 52.14 | 8.70 | ?0.091 | 0.378*** | ?0.028 | 0.178** | 0.126* |
| Conscientiousness | 54.96 | 7.92 | ?0.218*** | 0.413*** | ?0.023 | ?0.023 | 0.427*** |
| Openness to Experience | 55.98 | 9.17 | ?0.229*** | 0.384*** | 0.009 | 0.119* | 0.359*** |
| Altruism | 15.18 | 2.55 | 0.134* | 0.344*** | 0.062 | 0.217*** | 0.229*** |
| Other Personality Traits | |||||||
| Self-esteem | 29.94 | 5.00 | ?0.376*** | 0.321*** | ?0.072 | 0.030 | 0.237*** |
| Narcissism | 5.12 | 3.42 | ?0.518*** | ?0.014 | ?0.249*** | ?0.320*** | 0.029 |
| Dialectical Self | 127.64 | 12.54 | 0.197** | ?0.068 | 0.273*** | 0.071 | ?0.084 |
| Zhongyong Thinking | 73.21 | 7.81 | ?0.113 | 0.577*** | 0.236*** | 0.283*** | 0.397*** |
| Number of items |  2 | df |  2/df | CFI | TLI | SRMR | AIC | BIC | RESEA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 19 items | 327.86 | 142 | 2.31 | 0.849 | 0.818 | 0.085 | 16380.57 | 16622.41 | 0.069 |
| 18 items | 260.12 | 125 | 2.08 | 0.901 | 0.879 | 0.063 | 15343.77 | 15574.78 | 0.063 |
Table 10 Fit Indices of the Five-Factor Model for Western Participants
| Number of items | 2 | df | 2/df | CFI | TLI | SRMR | AIC | BIC | RESEA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 19 items | 327.86 | 142 | 2.31 | 0.849 | 0.818 | 0.085 | 16380.57 | 16622.41 | 0.069 |
| 18 items | 260.12 | 125 | 2.08 | 0.901 | 0.879 | 0.063 | 15343.77 | 15574.78 | 0.063 |
Figure 2. Five-factor structure of the humility scale in Western participants.
| Culture | Accurate Self-Perception | Other-Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self-Effacement | Self-Improvement |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese | 4.16(1.07) | 5.57(0.67) | 5.15(0.85) | 5.67(0.81) | 5.50(0.85) |
| Western | 4.37(1.25) | 5.76(0.78) | 4.97(1.00) | 5.51(0.95) | 5.61(0.95) |
| t | 2.61 | 3.55 | 2.71 | 2.56 | 1.66 |
| df | 390.64 | 393.46 | 388.90 | 390.78 | 399.81 |
| p | 0.009 | <0.001 | 0.007 | 0.011 | 0.097 |
| Cohen’ d | 0.195 | 0.263 | 0.203 | 0.191 | 0.121 |
| 95% CI of Difference | [?0.38, ?0.05] | [?0.29, ?0.08] | [0.05, 0.31] | [0.04, 0.28] | [?0.23, 0.02] |
Table 11 Comparison of Chinese and Western Participants on the Chinese Humility Scale
| Culture | Accurate Self-Perception | Other-Enhancement | Dialectical Thinking | Self-Effacement | Self-Improvement |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese | 4.16(1.07) | 5.57(0.67) | 5.15(0.85) | 5.67(0.81) | 5.50(0.85) |
| Western | 4.37(1.25) | 5.76(0.78) | 4.97(1.00) | 5.51(0.95) | 5.61(0.95) |
| t | 2.61 | 3.55 | 2.71 | 2.56 | 1.66 |
| df | 390.64 | 393.46 | 388.90 | 390.78 | 399.81 |
| p | 0.009 | <0.001 | 0.007 | 0.011 | 0.097 |
| Cohen’ d | 0.195 | 0.263 | 0.203 | 0.191 | 0.121 |
| 95% CI of Difference | [?0.38, ?0.05] | [?0.29, ?0.08] | [0.05, 0.31] | [0.04, 0.28] | [?0.23, 0.02] |
Figure 3. Latent profiles of Chinese humility traits (n = 981).
Figure 4. Latent profiles of humility traits in Western participants (n = 273).
| Raw data semantic excerpts | Open Coding | Axial Coding | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Initial concept | Sub-category | Core category | |
| Generally speaking, I'm actually quite critical of myself. I examine myself quite comprehensively, feeling where I didn't do well enough, or what mistakes I made in my daily work. Even if a task is completed smoothly, I still feel there are parts I didn't do too well. (Interviewee 9) | Frequently engages in self- reflection | Reflective progress | Self-view |
| Everyone might have their expertise... Actually, taking tests isn't the only standard for a person. It doesn't mean that having good grades destines you to be better than others in all aspects. So, I think maintaining a relatively humble mindset is a way to help me learn many different things from different people. (Interviewee 7) | A humble mindset prompts one to learn from others and continuously accept new things | Dialectical and open | |
| I roughly know my level, so every time I do something, I evaluate (myself). For example, if I participate in an interview today, I will evaluate (my performance in) this interview against my normal level, what standard it roughly is... meaning I won't feel I'm particularly bad, nor will I feel I'm particularly great. (Interviewee 20) | Has a clear self-cognition, possessing both strengths and weaknesses | Self-cognition | |
| Generally speaking, I feel I have a growth mindset. This doesn't just refer to age, but also other aspects, including mentality, cultivation, abilities, etc., are all growth-oriented. So from this perspective, there is no end to growth and progress. (Interviewee 20) | Possesses a growth mindset, believing there is no end to growth in all aspects of a person | Proactive self- improvement | |
| (Facing an excellent person) My first reaction would probably be that this person is amazing; I highly approve of them and appreciate them very much. Secondly, I might become more aware that my abilities in these aspects are lacking, and I might unconsciously imitate some of their behaviors. (Interviewee 3) | Discovers and appreciates others' strengths, acknowledging the existence of more excellent people | Appreciating others | Interpersonal interaction characteristics |
| I think maybe they indeed have strengths in a certain aspect, but they don't use this strength as leverage, as a proof to weigh our differences. They will always feel that although there are differences between us, we are equal, and we need to fully respect and accept you. My own performance is also conducted on a basis of equality. (Interviewee 5) | Believes that even if there are differences between oneself and others, they are fundamentally equal | Treating others equally | |
| For a humble person, they always feel they haven't learned enough, or understand enough. They are always more willing to, and with a more open mindset, observe the surrounding world. Regarding the people around them, they learn from their good aspects, and if there are bad aspects, they guard against them. (Interviewee 2) | Learning from others' strengths | Learning and progressing | |
| After coming to Peking University, I didn't feel that I myself had elevated a tier. Of course, (PKU) definitely has its benefits, for example, it does quite well in student security and humanistic care, but I don't feel that the people inside here are superior people. Many people inside here are the same, are equal, everyone lives about the same. (Interviewee 18) | Believes oneself is equal to others | Concept of equality | Group identity positioning |
| No one is that important; except for the boss, everyone can be replaced. But, for example, if the boss has some of those more important tasks, they will give them to me or some senior students to do. It's not because we are so important, but because we have studied longer, we should bear such responsibilities. Everyone growing up will eventually one day be in our position or a higher position than us. (Interviewee 14) | Realizes one is not irreplaceable | Self-positioning | |
| In most situations, I feel everyone has things they are good at. For example, A is good at doing research, B is good at handcrafts, C is good at making PPTs. Because everyone's expertise is different, the direction of the results they present is also different. Because in most situations, people evaluate a person comprehensively; for example, if you have a high proportion in this aspect, the proportion in another aspect will definitely be relatively lower, because it's impossible for anyone to be perfect. (Interviewee 14) | Everyone's strengths are different; one must evaluate a person comprehensively | Dialectically evaluating others | |
| First of all, my evaluation of myself is that I am not a very important person. But often, I feel that if everyone doesn't actively take on tasks, firstly the atmosphere will be very awkward, and secondly, the task cannot be completed well. So, I often actively organize, speak my mind; if no one is more proactive than me, I will actively take on a relatively core role. (Interviewee 6) | If no one takes responsibility, will proactively take responsibility | Behavioral manifestation | |
| I think China or other societies influenced by Confucian culture, to some extent, actually quite value the concept of "Ren" (benevolence). Originally there was a concept called "Xiang Ren Ou" (mutual interaction), its meaning is that when the two of us sit face to face, every move I make must pay attention to your every move, meaning my every move must be based on your every move. If you feel uncomfortable, or you stop now, what you want to do, I will notice you at any time. I feel humility is just paying attention to others, or paying attention to one's own position in a group, needing to find one's proper place in the crowd. (Interviewee 9) | "Ren" represents the relationship between people, and humility also belongs to the category of "Ren" | Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist thought | Cultural influence factors |
| China is an agricultural society, where experience is accumulated. So we must respect tradition, because tradition is often something proven effective through practice, and is still quite authoritative. So maybe the saying "If you don't listen to the elders, you will suffer right before your eyes" still has some truth to it. Under this kind of culture, one must respect elders, listen to their words, not overly flaunt your personality, and it is hoped that you are humble. (Interviewee 1) | Emphasizes the importance of authority and elders' experience; one needs to show respect when facing older people | Characteristics of traditional society | |
| I feel that abroad, for a humble person, (humility) will definitely also be helpful to their career, I think firstly this effect definitely exists. However, I feel they might focus more on other aspects in achieving success, for example, your passion for doing things. Many things can promote success, they might not put humility in a relatively forward position. (Interviewee 12) | In Western society, humility is also beneficial to the individual, but might not be valued by others | Comparison of Chinese and Western cultures | |
Table A Partial Results of Axial Coding
| Raw data semantic excerpts | Open Coding | Axial Coding | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Initial concept | Sub-category | Core category | |
| Generally speaking, I'm actually quite critical of myself. I examine myself quite comprehensively, feeling where I didn't do well enough, or what mistakes I made in my daily work. Even if a task is completed smoothly, I still feel there are parts I didn't do too well. (Interviewee 9) | Frequently engages in self- reflection | Reflective progress | Self-view |
| Everyone might have their expertise... Actually, taking tests isn't the only standard for a person. It doesn't mean that having good grades destines you to be better than others in all aspects. So, I think maintaining a relatively humble mindset is a way to help me learn many different things from different people. (Interviewee 7) | A humble mindset prompts one to learn from others and continuously accept new things | Dialectical and open | |
| I roughly know my level, so every time I do something, I evaluate (myself). For example, if I participate in an interview today, I will evaluate (my performance in) this interview against my normal level, what standard it roughly is... meaning I won't feel I'm particularly bad, nor will I feel I'm particularly great. (Interviewee 20) | Has a clear self-cognition, possessing both strengths and weaknesses | Self-cognition | |
| Generally speaking, I feel I have a growth mindset. This doesn't just refer to age, but also other aspects, including mentality, cultivation, abilities, etc., are all growth-oriented. So from this perspective, there is no end to growth and progress. (Interviewee 20) | Possesses a growth mindset, believing there is no end to growth in all aspects of a person | Proactive self- improvement | |
| (Facing an excellent person) My first reaction would probably be that this person is amazing; I highly approve of them and appreciate them very much. Secondly, I might become more aware that my abilities in these aspects are lacking, and I might unconsciously imitate some of their behaviors. (Interviewee 3) | Discovers and appreciates others' strengths, acknowledging the existence of more excellent people | Appreciating others | Interpersonal interaction characteristics |
| I think maybe they indeed have strengths in a certain aspect, but they don't use this strength as leverage, as a proof to weigh our differences. They will always feel that although there are differences between us, we are equal, and we need to fully respect and accept you. My own performance is also conducted on a basis of equality. (Interviewee 5) | Believes that even if there are differences between oneself and others, they are fundamentally equal | Treating others equally | |
| For a humble person, they always feel they haven't learned enough, or understand enough. They are always more willing to, and with a more open mindset, observe the surrounding world. Regarding the people around them, they learn from their good aspects, and if there are bad aspects, they guard against them. (Interviewee 2) | Learning from others' strengths | Learning and progressing | |
| After coming to Peking University, I didn't feel that I myself had elevated a tier. Of course, (PKU) definitely has its benefits, for example, it does quite well in student security and humanistic care, but I don't feel that the people inside here are superior people. Many people inside here are the same, are equal, everyone lives about the same. (Interviewee 18) | Believes oneself is equal to others | Concept of equality | Group identity positioning |
| No one is that important; except for the boss, everyone can be replaced. But, for example, if the boss has some of those more important tasks, they will give them to me or some senior students to do. It's not because we are so important, but because we have studied longer, we should bear such responsibilities. Everyone growing up will eventually one day be in our position or a higher position than us. (Interviewee 14) | Realizes one is not irreplaceable | Self-positioning | |
| In most situations, I feel everyone has things they are good at. For example, A is good at doing research, B is good at handcrafts, C is good at making PPTs. Because everyone's expertise is different, the direction of the results they present is also different. Because in most situations, people evaluate a person comprehensively; for example, if you have a high proportion in this aspect, the proportion in another aspect will definitely be relatively lower, because it's impossible for anyone to be perfect. (Interviewee 14) | Everyone's strengths are different; one must evaluate a person comprehensively | Dialectically evaluating others | |
| First of all, my evaluation of myself is that I am not a very important person. But often, I feel that if everyone doesn't actively take on tasks, firstly the atmosphere will be very awkward, and secondly, the task cannot be completed well. So, I often actively organize, speak my mind; if no one is more proactive than me, I will actively take on a relatively core role. (Interviewee 6) | If no one takes responsibility, will proactively take responsibility | Behavioral manifestation | |
| I think China or other societies influenced by Confucian culture, to some extent, actually quite value the concept of "Ren" (benevolence). Originally there was a concept called "Xiang Ren Ou" (mutual interaction), its meaning is that when the two of us sit face to face, every move I make must pay attention to your every move, meaning my every move must be based on your every move. If you feel uncomfortable, or you stop now, what you want to do, I will notice you at any time. I feel humility is just paying attention to others, or paying attention to one's own position in a group, needing to find one's proper place in the crowd. (Interviewee 9) | "Ren" represents the relationship between people, and humility also belongs to the category of "Ren" | Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist thought | Cultural influence factors |
| China is an agricultural society, where experience is accumulated. So we must respect tradition, because tradition is often something proven effective through practice, and is still quite authoritative. So maybe the saying "If you don't listen to the elders, you will suffer right before your eyes" still has some truth to it. Under this kind of culture, one must respect elders, listen to their words, not overly flaunt your personality, and it is hoped that you are humble. (Interviewee 1) | Emphasizes the importance of authority and elders' experience; one needs to show respect when facing older people | Characteristics of traditional society | |
| I feel that abroad, for a humble person, (humility) will definitely also be helpful to their career, I think firstly this effect definitely exists. However, I feel they might focus more on other aspects in achieving success, for example, your passion for doing things. Many things can promote success, they might not put humility in a relatively forward position. (Interviewee 12) | In Western society, humility is also beneficial to the individual, but might not be valued by others | Comparison of Chinese and Western cultures | |
| 序号 | 中文条目 | 英文条目 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 我认为自己是个普普通通的人, 并不比其他人优秀 | I believe I am an ordinary person who is no better than others |
| 2 | 我认为自己在很多方面比别人特别和优秀R | I believe I am more special and outstanding than others in many ways R |
| 3 | 我认为自己比多数人更应该拥有较大的影响力和权力R | I believe I deserve more influence and power than most other people do R |
| 4 | 我认为我比一般人有资格得到更多的尊重R | I think I am entitled to more respect than the average person is R |
| 5 | 我会更多地关注到别人优秀的一面而不是缺点 | I focus more on others’ strengths than on their weaknesses |
| 6 | 与人相处时, 我乐于为别人提供表现的机会 | When interacting with others, I am happy to provide opportunities for them to showcase themselves |
| 7 | 我认为别人经常能够对我有所帮助 | I recognize that people are often helpful to me |
| 8 | 我会鼓励别人分享自己的观点 | I encourage others to share their viewpoints |
| 9 | 我会经常夸奖别人 | I often praise other people |
| 10 | 我认为未来的事情不一定按照自己的预期发展 | I believe the future may not unfold as I expect |
| 11 | 我认为发生在自己身上的好事也可能带来负面影响 | I believe that good things that happen to me may also bring negative consequences |
| 12 | 我认为即使深入了解某件事, 我的了解也并不全面 | I think that even if I know something in depth, I still don’t know it comprehensively |
| 13 | 我意识到自己现在认为正确的观点, 将来可能会被证明是错误的 | I recognize that what I think is right now may someday be proven wrong |
| 14 | 我不会主动表现自己, 但在需要发挥作用时会采取行动 | I do not deliberately show off, but I do take action when I need to play a role |
| 15 | 我不会主动炫耀自己的成就或能力 | I avoid boasting about my achievements or abilities |
| 16 | 我不会刻意追求引人注目 | I don't deliberately seek to draw attention to myself |
| 17 | 我会经常与过去的自己进行比较, 关注自身是否有所进步 | I often compare myself with my past self to see if I have made progress |
| 18 | 我会经常反思自己在取得一定成就后是否松懈 | I often reflect on whether I have become slack after achieving certain accomplishments |
| 19 | 我会经常进行自我反省 | I often reflect on myself |
Table B The Chinese Humility Scale (Chinese-English Bilingual Version)
| 序号 | 中文条目 | 英文条目 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 我认为自己是个普普通通的人, 并不比其他人优秀 | I believe I am an ordinary person who is no better than others |
| 2 | 我认为自己在很多方面比别人特别和优秀R | I believe I am more special and outstanding than others in many ways R |
| 3 | 我认为自己比多数人更应该拥有较大的影响力和权力R | I believe I deserve more influence and power than most other people do R |
| 4 | 我认为我比一般人有资格得到更多的尊重R | I think I am entitled to more respect than the average person is R |
| 5 | 我会更多地关注到别人优秀的一面而不是缺点 | I focus more on others’ strengths than on their weaknesses |
| 6 | 与人相处时, 我乐于为别人提供表现的机会 | When interacting with others, I am happy to provide opportunities for them to showcase themselves |
| 7 | 我认为别人经常能够对我有所帮助 | I recognize that people are often helpful to me |
| 8 | 我会鼓励别人分享自己的观点 | I encourage others to share their viewpoints |
| 9 | 我会经常夸奖别人 | I often praise other people |
| 10 | 我认为未来的事情不一定按照自己的预期发展 | I believe the future may not unfold as I expect |
| 11 | 我认为发生在自己身上的好事也可能带来负面影响 | I believe that good things that happen to me may also bring negative consequences |
| 12 | 我认为即使深入了解某件事, 我的了解也并不全面 | I think that even if I know something in depth, I still don’t know it comprehensively |
| 13 | 我意识到自己现在认为正确的观点, 将来可能会被证明是错误的 | I recognize that what I think is right now may someday be proven wrong |
| 14 | 我不会主动表现自己, 但在需要发挥作用时会采取行动 | I do not deliberately show off, but I do take action when I need to play a role |
| 15 | 我不会主动炫耀自己的成就或能力 | I avoid boasting about my achievements or abilities |
| 16 | 我不会刻意追求引人注目 | I don't deliberately seek to draw attention to myself |
| 17 | 我会经常与过去的自己进行比较, 关注自身是否有所进步 | I often compare myself with my past self to see if I have made progress |
| 18 | 我会经常反思自己在取得一定成就后是否松懈 | I often reflect on whether I have become slack after achieving certain accomplishments |
| 19 | 我会经常进行自我反省 | I often reflect on myself |
| Model | Variance Estimation Method | Number of Profiles | LL | AIC | BIC | aBIC | CAIC | Entropy | LMR_LRT | LMR_p | BLRT_p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | 1 | ?6125.90 | 12271.81 | 12320.69 | 12270.37 | 12291.25 | 1.00 | |||
| 2 | 1 | 2 | ?5980.60 | 11993.19 | 12071.41 | 12002.03 | 12047.97 | 0.61 | 288.83 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 3 | 1 | 3 | ?5851.55 | 11747.11 | 11854.66 | 11766.22 | 11837.21 | 0.73 | 254.93 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 4 | 1 | 4 | ?5823.58 | 11703.16 | 11840.04 | 11732.55 | 11828.60 | 0.65 | 54.92 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 5 | 1 | 5 | ?5773.59 | 11615.17 | 11781.38 | 11654.83 | 11775.94 | 0.68 | 97.54 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 6 | 1 | 6 | ?5710.59 | 11501.17 | 11696.72 | 11551.11 | 11697.27 | 0.70 | 122.14 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 7 | 2 | 1 | ?6125.90 | 12271.81 | 12320.69 | 12288.93 | 12330.69 | 1.00 | |||
| 8 | 2 | 2 | ?5855.50 | 11752.99 | 11855.65 | 11770.40 | 11837.21 | 0.61 | 534.75 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 9 | 2 | 3 | ?5811.66 | 11687.32 | 11843.75 | 11704.99 | 11796.87 | 0.61 | 86.16 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 10 | 2 | 4 | ?5690.43 | 11466.87 | 11677.07 | 11484.82 | 11601.75 | 0.64 | 236.77 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 11 | 2 | 5 | ?5636.69 | 11381.38 | 11645.36 | 11399.61 | 11541.59 | 0.65 | 104.31 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 12 | 2 | 6 | ?5604.79 | 11339.58 | 11657.33 | 11358.08 | 11525.12 | 0.64 | 61.53 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 13 | 3 | 1 | ?5844.29 | 11728.57 | 11826.35 | 11710.85 | 11735.91 | 1.00 | |||
| 14 | 3 | 2 | ?5781.43 | 11614.86 | 11741.96 | 11607.41 | 11657.52 | 0.88 | 124.82 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 15 | 3 | 3 | ?5766.81 | 11597.61 | 11754.04 | 11600.44 | 11675.60 | 0.66 | 28.86 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 16 | 3 | 4 | ?5687.22 | 11450.45 | 11636.21 | 11463.55 | 11563.77 | 0.70 | 156.08 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 17 | 3 | 5 | ?5645.97 | 11379.93 | 11595.03 | 11403.31 | 11528.59 | 0.72 | 80.41 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 18 | 3 | 6 | ?5624.26 | 11348.52 | 11592.95 | 11382.17 | 11532.51 | 0.72 | 42.04 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 19 | 6 | 1 | ?5844.29 | 11728.57 | 11826.35 | 11710.85 | 11735.91 | 1.00 | |||
| 20 | 6 | 2 | ?5651.18 | 11384.37 | 11584.80 | 11350.63 | 11404.92 | 0.53 | 383.45 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 21 | 6 | 3 | ?5608.15 | 11340.30 | 11643.39 | 11290.55 | 11374.07 | 0.60 | 84.84 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 22 | 6 | 4 | ?5548.60 | 11263.19 | 11668.94 | 11197.43 | 11310.18 | 0.57 | 116.56 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 23 | 6 | 5 | ?5520.50 | 11248.99 | 11757.40 | 11167.22 | 11309.20 | 0.66 | 54.59 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 24 | 6 | 6 | ?5489.75 | 11229.50 | 11840.57 | 11131.71 | 11302.93 | 0.65 | 59.30 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
Table C Fit Indices of Latent Profile Models for Chinese Participants (n = 981)
| Model | Variance Estimation Method | Number of Profiles | LL | AIC | BIC | aBIC | CAIC | Entropy | LMR_LRT | LMR_p | BLRT_p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | 1 | ?6125.90 | 12271.81 | 12320.69 | 12270.37 | 12291.25 | 1.00 | |||
| 2 | 1 | 2 | ?5980.60 | 11993.19 | 12071.41 | 12002.03 | 12047.97 | 0.61 | 288.83 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 3 | 1 | 3 | ?5851.55 | 11747.11 | 11854.66 | 11766.22 | 11837.21 | 0.73 | 254.93 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 4 | 1 | 4 | ?5823.58 | 11703.16 | 11840.04 | 11732.55 | 11828.60 | 0.65 | 54.92 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 5 | 1 | 5 | ?5773.59 | 11615.17 | 11781.38 | 11654.83 | 11775.94 | 0.68 | 97.54 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 6 | 1 | 6 | ?5710.59 | 11501.17 | 11696.72 | 11551.11 | 11697.27 | 0.70 | 122.14 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 7 | 2 | 1 | ?6125.90 | 12271.81 | 12320.69 | 12288.93 | 12330.69 | 1.00 | |||
| 8 | 2 | 2 | ?5855.50 | 11752.99 | 11855.65 | 11770.40 | 11837.21 | 0.61 | 534.75 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 9 | 2 | 3 | ?5811.66 | 11687.32 | 11843.75 | 11704.99 | 11796.87 | 0.61 | 86.16 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 10 | 2 | 4 | ?5690.43 | 11466.87 | 11677.07 | 11484.82 | 11601.75 | 0.64 | 236.77 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 11 | 2 | 5 | ?5636.69 | 11381.38 | 11645.36 | 11399.61 | 11541.59 | 0.65 | 104.31 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 12 | 2 | 6 | ?5604.79 | 11339.58 | 11657.33 | 11358.08 | 11525.12 | 0.64 | 61.53 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 13 | 3 | 1 | ?5844.29 | 11728.57 | 11826.35 | 11710.85 | 11735.91 | 1.00 | |||
| 14 | 3 | 2 | ?5781.43 | 11614.86 | 11741.96 | 11607.41 | 11657.52 | 0.88 | 124.82 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 15 | 3 | 3 | ?5766.81 | 11597.61 | 11754.04 | 11600.44 | 11675.60 | 0.66 | 28.86 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 16 | 3 | 4 | ?5687.22 | 11450.45 | 11636.21 | 11463.55 | 11563.77 | 0.70 | 156.08 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 17 | 3 | 5 | ?5645.97 | 11379.93 | 11595.03 | 11403.31 | 11528.59 | 0.72 | 80.41 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 18 | 3 | 6 | ?5624.26 | 11348.52 | 11592.95 | 11382.17 | 11532.51 | 0.72 | 42.04 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 19 | 6 | 1 | ?5844.29 | 11728.57 | 11826.35 | 11710.85 | 11735.91 | 1.00 | |||
| 20 | 6 | 2 | ?5651.18 | 11384.37 | 11584.80 | 11350.63 | 11404.92 | 0.53 | 383.45 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 21 | 6 | 3 | ?5608.15 | 11340.30 | 11643.39 | 11290.55 | 11374.07 | 0.60 | 84.84 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 22 | 6 | 4 | ?5548.60 | 11263.19 | 11668.94 | 11197.43 | 11310.18 | 0.57 | 116.56 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 23 | 6 | 5 | ?5520.50 | 11248.99 | 11757.40 | 11167.22 | 11309.20 | 0.66 | 54.59 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 24 | 6 | 6 | ?5489.75 | 11229.50 | 11840.57 | 11131.71 | 11302.93 | 0.65 | 59.30 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| Model | Variance Estimation Method | Number of Profiles | LL | AIC | BIC | aBIC | CAIC | Entropy | LMR_LRT | LMR_p | BLRT_p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | 1 | ?1896.59 | 3813.18 | 3849.27 | 3805.37 | 3826.22 | 1.00 | |||
| 2 | 1 | 2 | ?1806.92 | 3645.84 | 3703.59 | 3640.66 | 3686.54 | 0.73 | 175.40 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 3 | 1 | 3 | ?1775.31 | 3594.62 | 3674.03 | 3592.08 | 3662.98 | 0.76 | 60.44 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 4 | 1 | 4 | ?1765.88 | 3587.76 | 3688.82 | 3587.85 | 3683.77 | 0.79 | 17.62 | 0.007 | 0.005 |
| 5 | 1 | 5 | ?1751.43 | 3570.86 | 3693.58 | 3573.58 | 3694.53 | 0.73 | 26.36 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 6 | 1 | 6 | ?1728.98 | 3537.96 | 3682.34 | 3543.32 | 3689.29 | 0.77 | 39.96 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 7 | 2 | 1 | ?1896.59 | 3813.18 | 3849.27 | 3817.56 | 3859.27 | 1.00 | |||
| 8 | 2 | 2 | ?1788.03 | 3618.07 | 3693.87 | 3615.09 | 3681.82 | 0.70 | 208.36 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 9 | 2 | 3 | ?1721.50 | 3507.01 | 3622.51 | 3496.66 | 3588.41 | 0.79 | 124.78 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 10 | 2 | 4 | ?1697.20 | 3480.40 | 3635.61 | 3462.68 | 3579.47 | 0.74 | 44.51 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 11 | 2 | 5 | ?1680.89 | 3469.79 | 3664.70 | 3444.70 | 3586.51 | 0.77 | 29.15 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 12 | 2 | 6 | ?1670.07 | 3470.15 | 3704.76 | 3437.70 | 3604.53 | 0.82 | 18.87 | 0.004 | 0.005 |
| 13 | 3 | 1 | ?1756.81 | 3553.62 | 3625.81 | 3528.26 | 3553.28 | 1.00 | |||
| 14 | 3 | 2 | ?1746.14 | 3544.28 | 3638.13 | 3521.55 | 3571.60 | 0.68 | 20.79 | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| 15 | 3 | 3 | ?1739.97 | 3543.93 | 3659.43 | 3523.83 | 3598.90 | 0.62 | 11.76 | 0.067 | 0.005 |
| 16 | 3 | 4 | ?1725.80 | 3527.60 | 3664.76 | 3510.13 | 3610.23 | 0.75 | 26.36 | <0.001 | 0.020 |
| 17 | 3 | 5 | ?1716.95 | 3521.91 | 3680.72 | 3507.07 | 3632.19 | 0.71 | 16.07 | 0.013 | 0.010 |
| 18 | 3 | 6 | ?1688.44 | 3476.87 | 3657.34 | 3464.66 | 3614.81 | 0.78 | 50.56 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 19 | 6 | 1 | ?1756.81 | 3553.62 | 3625.81 | 3528.26 | 3553.28 | 1.00 | |||
| 20 | 6 | 2 | ?1693.79 | 3469.57 | 3617.56 | 3419.27 | 3473.49 | 0.72 | 122.82 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 21 | 6 | 3 | ?1646.77 | 3417.54 | 3641.33 | 3342.32 | 3425.73 | 0.78 | 89.21 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 22 | 6 | 4 | ?1609.82 | 3385.64 | 3685.23 | 3285.49 | 3398.10 | 0.82 | 68.21 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 23 | 6 | 5 | ?1598.33 | 3404.66 | 3780.04 | 3279.58 | 3421.38 | 0.80 | 20.63 | 0.004 | 0.035 |
| 24 | 6 | 6 | ?1584.26 | 3418.52 | 3869.70 | 3268.51 | 3439.51 | 0.82 | 24.53 | 0.001 | 0.249 |
Table D Fit Indices of Latent Profile Models for Western Participants (n = 273)
| Model | Variance Estimation Method | Number of Profiles | LL | AIC | BIC | aBIC | CAIC | Entropy | LMR_LRT | LMR_p | BLRT_p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | 1 | ?1896.59 | 3813.18 | 3849.27 | 3805.37 | 3826.22 | 1.00 | |||
| 2 | 1 | 2 | ?1806.92 | 3645.84 | 3703.59 | 3640.66 | 3686.54 | 0.73 | 175.40 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 3 | 1 | 3 | ?1775.31 | 3594.62 | 3674.03 | 3592.08 | 3662.98 | 0.76 | 60.44 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 4 | 1 | 4 | ?1765.88 | 3587.76 | 3688.82 | 3587.85 | 3683.77 | 0.79 | 17.62 | 0.007 | 0.005 |
| 5 | 1 | 5 | ?1751.43 | 3570.86 | 3693.58 | 3573.58 | 3694.53 | 0.73 | 26.36 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 6 | 1 | 6 | ?1728.98 | 3537.96 | 3682.34 | 3543.32 | 3689.29 | 0.77 | 39.96 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 7 | 2 | 1 | ?1896.59 | 3813.18 | 3849.27 | 3817.56 | 3859.27 | 1.00 | |||
| 8 | 2 | 2 | ?1788.03 | 3618.07 | 3693.87 | 3615.09 | 3681.82 | 0.70 | 208.36 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 9 | 2 | 3 | ?1721.50 | 3507.01 | 3622.51 | 3496.66 | 3588.41 | 0.79 | 124.78 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 10 | 2 | 4 | ?1697.20 | 3480.40 | 3635.61 | 3462.68 | 3579.47 | 0.74 | 44.51 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 11 | 2 | 5 | ?1680.89 | 3469.79 | 3664.70 | 3444.70 | 3586.51 | 0.77 | 29.15 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 12 | 2 | 6 | ?1670.07 | 3470.15 | 3704.76 | 3437.70 | 3604.53 | 0.82 | 18.87 | 0.004 | 0.005 |
| 13 | 3 | 1 | ?1756.81 | 3553.62 | 3625.81 | 3528.26 | 3553.28 | 1.00 | |||
| 14 | 3 | 2 | ?1746.14 | 3544.28 | 3638.13 | 3521.55 | 3571.60 | 0.68 | 20.79 | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| 15 | 3 | 3 | ?1739.97 | 3543.93 | 3659.43 | 3523.83 | 3598.90 | 0.62 | 11.76 | 0.067 | 0.005 |
| 16 | 3 | 4 | ?1725.80 | 3527.60 | 3664.76 | 3510.13 | 3610.23 | 0.75 | 26.36 | <0.001 | 0.020 |
| 17 | 3 | 5 | ?1716.95 | 3521.91 | 3680.72 | 3507.07 | 3632.19 | 0.71 | 16.07 | 0.013 | 0.010 |
| 18 | 3 | 6 | ?1688.44 | 3476.87 | 3657.34 | 3464.66 | 3614.81 | 0.78 | 50.56 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 19 | 6 | 1 | ?1756.81 | 3553.62 | 3625.81 | 3528.26 | 3553.28 | 1.00 | |||
| 20 | 6 | 2 | ?1693.79 | 3469.57 | 3617.56 | 3419.27 | 3473.49 | 0.72 | 122.82 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 21 | 6 | 3 | ?1646.77 | 3417.54 | 3641.33 | 3342.32 | 3425.73 | 0.78 | 89.21 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 22 | 6 | 4 | ?1609.82 | 3385.64 | 3685.23 | 3285.49 | 3398.10 | 0.82 | 68.21 | <0.001 | 0.005 |
| 23 | 6 | 5 | ?1598.33 | 3404.66 | 3780.04 | 3279.58 | 3421.38 | 0.80 | 20.63 | 0.004 | 0.035 |
| 24 | 6 | 6 | ?1584.26 | 3418.52 | 3869.70 | 3268.51 | 3439.51 | 0.82 | 24.53 | 0.001 | 0.249 |
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