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Reports of Empirical Studies


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Reports of Empirical Studies

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Category and semantic distance modulate the impact of prediction on memory DAI Jiaojian, SUN Mingze, WANG Dongfang, MAO Xinrui, GUO Chunyan 2026, 58 (1):  1-14.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0001 Abstract ( 2269 )   HTML ( 60 )   PDF (1368KB) ( 2340 )   Peer Review Comments Humans often make predictions based on current contexts to guide subsequent behavior. However, there is ongoing debate about whether predictable or unpredictable items lead to better memory performance. Some researchers have found better memory performance for predictable items, while others have found better memory performance for unpredictable items. The present study used EEG to examine the relationship between encoding sub-processes and memory performance across different levels of predictability. This provides a new perspective on resolving the discrepancy in memory performance between predictable and unpredictable items. We manipulated predictability through category and semantic distance to examine memory performance under different levels of predictability (Experiment 1: item recognition; Experiment 2: associative recognition). Specifically, we set up 3 conditions: C+S+ (e.g. furniture: sofa, within-category and near semantic distance), C−S+ (e.g. furniture: decoration, out-of-category and near semantic distance), and C−S− (e.g. furniture: phase, out-of-category and far semantic distance). In the study phase, prime words (e.g., furniture) and target words (e.g., sofa) were presented sequentially. Participants were asked to judge which condition each word pair belonged to by pressing the corresponding key when the target word appeared. In the test phase, 28 participants completed an item recognition test and 26 participants completed an associative recognition test. In the study phase, both experiments consistently showed higher accuracy and faster reaction times in the C+S+ and C−S− conditions than in the C−S+ condition. The N400 amplitudes became progressively more negative across the C+S+, C−S+, and C−S− conditions. In Experiment 2, the P600 amplitude was more positive in the C+S+ and C−S+ conditions compared to the C−S− condition. In both experiments, linear discriminant analysis (LDA) successfully distinguished neural representations across conditions during the N400 and P600 time windows. In the test phase, item recognition (Experiment 1) and associative recognition (Experiment 2) both showed a graded decline in memory performance across the C+S+, C−S+, and C−S− conditions. In addition, both experiments consistently showed that N400 amplitudes during the study phase significantly predicted memory performance in the test phase. In conclusion, these results suggest that category and semantic distance modulate the influence of prediction on memory through different mechanisms: category may influence memory by modulating encoding burden, while semantic distance may influence memory performance through semantic integration. These findings not only support the view that predictable items have better memory performance, but also suggest that the divergence between predictable and unpredictable memory performance may arise from the relative contributions of two independent factors: encoding difficulty and encoding effort. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Acute pain modulates personal and vicarious reward processing: An ERP study LIU Peihan, PENG Weiwei, WANG Jinxia, LI Hong, LEI Yi 2026, 58 (1):  15-38.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0015 Abstract ( 1094 )   HTML ( 38 )   PDF (4242KB) ( 1199 )   Peer Review Comments Pain and reward are two fundamental forces that motivate behavior and regulate perceptions in humans. The interactions between these forces drive motivational decision-making. This study employed a modified Monetary Incentive Delay (MID) task combined with Event-Related Potential (ERP) techniques to examine the dynamics of reward processing under acute pain, with particular focus on the stage-specific modulation of self-oriented (personal) and other-oriented (substitute) rewards in healthy individuals. The results indicate that acute pain can significantly enhance reward-based motivation during the anticipation phase, as reflected by faster reaction times and increased button presses, with a linear increase corresponding to the magnitude of the potential reward. ERP findings reveal that, in the anticipation phase, participants in the pain group exhibited larger cue-P2 and cue-P3 amplitudes; this suggests heightened emotional processing of reward cues and increased attentional allocation to substitute rewards. Greater FRN and P3 amplitudes were observed in the pain group under substitute reward conditions in the outcome phase, indicating enhanced neural responses to socially directed reward feedback. Together, these results demonstrate a stage-dependent influence of acute pain on reward processing: while motivational responses uniformly increased across reward types, emotional and neural responses were more prominently modulated for substitute rewards. These findings provide novel evidence of the complex interplay between pain and reward systems and suggest a duality in pain-related modulation—motivational convergence and experiential dissociation—within the reward processing framework. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Characteristics and interventions of negative emotion regulation in children with autism: Mindfulness and cognitive strategy training based on multimodal assessment WANG Xueke, DENG Fang, CHEN Li, FENG Tingyong 2026, 58 (1):  39-56.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0039 Abstract ( 1885 )   HTML ( 61 )   PDF (651KB) ( 1975 )   Peer Review Comments Effective regulation of negative emotions is essential for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to adapt successfully to social environments. However, prior research has predominantly focused on emotion recognition and comprehension, with limited attention to the specific characteristics of emotion regulation in ASD children and targeted intervention strategies. To bridge this gap, the present study adopted a multimodal assessment framework, integrating self-report measures, behavioral observations, and physiological recordings in both laboratory and real-life contexts. This comprehensive approach enabled an in-depth examination of emotion regulation characteristics in ASD children and evaluated the efficacy of mindfulness and cognitive-behavioral strategies in improving their regulatory abilities. Study 1 involved children with ASD (n = 23) and typically developing (TD) children (n = 22) who participated in a frustration-inducing task, during which their coping strategies and physiological responses were recorded. Parents also completed questionnaires assessing their children's daily emotion regulation abilities. Building on these insights, Study 2 developed an integrated intervention program combining mindfulness and cognitive-behavioral strategies. A 2×2 experimental design (intervention vs. control group; pre- vs. post-test) was implemented, with the intervention group receiving an eight-week program comprising two 60-minute sessions per week in small groups of two to three children. Results from Study 1 revealed pronounced emotion regulation difficulties in ASD children across multiple domains: (1) Behavioral observations indicated a reliance on maladaptive coping strategies and infrequent use of constructive approaches for managing negative emotions; (2) Physiological indicators showed elevated arousal, greater emotional volatility, and slower recovery rates in response to negative stimuli; (3) Questionnaire data highlighted poorer overall emotion regulation, more frequent negative emotions, and less stable emotional states compared to TD children. In Study 2, post-intervention assessments demonstrated significant increases in constructive emotion regulation strategies and reductions in maladaptive ones during laboratory tasks among ASD children. Additionally, self-reported emotion regulation abilities and daily emotional stability improved markedly. By employing multimodal assessments across laboratory and ecological settings, this study provides a holistic portrayal of emotion regulation in ASD children, addressing the full regulatory process and filling key gaps in the literature. It offers theoretical insights into ASD-related emotion regulation challenges and lays the groundwork for personalized interventions. Innovatively, the study develops and validates an integrated program merging mindfulness techniques with cognitive-behavioral strategies, which not only bolsters emotional management skills in ASD children—enhancing their social interactions and quality of life—but also equips educators, therapists, and parents with evidence-based tools to foster comprehensive development and behavioral optimization. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Why are maximizing patients more vigilant toward doctors? The mediation role of moral disengagement XU Zihao, ZHU Dongqing, YAN Xiaomin 2026, 58 (1):  57-73.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0057 Abstract ( 1022 )   HTML ( 38 )   PDF (591KB) ( 1083 )   Peer Review Comments Growing social uncertainties have heightened public psychological defensiveness, with particularly pronounced effects in clinical encounters where patients exhibit heightened vigilance toward doctors. This vigilance elicits cognitive and physiological stress responses that, while not immediately causing overt conflict, gradually undermine relational resilience and increase confrontation risks. Thus, patient vigilance constitutes a critical form of “psychological latent risk,” facilitating the transition from psychological opposition to behavioral conflict. Yet how individual decision-making traits influence this vigilance remains unclear. Our research investigates how maximization orientation affects patient vigilance through moral disengagement, and how doctor friendly behavior moderates this relationship. Study 1 preliminarily examined the effect of maximization orientation on patient vigilance and the mediating role of moral disengagement using a sample of patients surveyed after their clinical visits. Participants self-reported their maximization orientation, vigilance toward doctors, moral disengagement, and common ingroup identity. They were also asked to predict doctors’ potential behaviors across eight typical medical scenarios, with their vigilance quantitatively assessed through standardized coding of these predictions. Results confirmed maximization orientation increased vigilance through moral disengagement (supporting H1-H2), while excluding common ingroup identity as an alternative explanation. Study 2 conducted a field survey of patients who consulted the same target doctor to further examine the relationships among maximization orientation, moral disengagement, and patient vigilance toward doctors, as well as the moderating role of doctor friendly behavior. Participants completed pre-consultation measures assessing maximization orientation and demographic variables, followed by post-consultation evaluations of doctor friendly behavior, vigilance, moral disengagement, and control variables. Vigilance toward doctors was measured using the identical subjective prediction method employed in Study 1. The results not only replicated the mediation effect observed in Study 1 but also revealed that doctor friendly behavior significantly moderated the moral disengagement pathway (supporting H1-H4), thereby establishing external validity for our full theoretical model. Study 3 employed a 2 (maximization: maximizing vs. satisficing) × 2 (friendly behavior: present vs. absent) between-subjects design to experimentally test the full model, thereby providing causal evidence for the proposed relationships. After successful manipulation and verification of the maximization mindset, participants read eight typical medical scenarios (with or without doctor-friendly behaviors) and assessed the likelihood of doctors engaging in behaviors that could harm patients’ interests, which served as our measure of vigilance. Subsequently, participants reported their moral disengagement and demographic information. The results provided causal evidence for our theoretical model, robustly confirming all hypothesized relationships (H1-H4). Collectively, this study reveals that maximization orientation heightens patient vigilance through moral disengagement, thereby advancing social vigilance research, uncovering novel interpersonal consequences of maximization orientation, and extending moral disengagement theory through empirical evidence of its extra-moral motivational effects. Importantly, this study proposes a comprehensive prevention framework for doctor-patient conflicts, comprising: (1) establishing a “prevention-first” conflict management principle; (2) incorporating maximization orientation into risk early-warning indicator systems; (3) integrating the impact of patients’ maximization orientation into healthcare professionals’ communication training; and (4) developing targeted clinical interventions based on the moral disengagement mechanism. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Moral deficiency in AI decision-making: Underlying mechanisms and mitigation strategies HU Xiaoyong, LI Mufeng, LI Yue, LI Kai, YU Feng 2026, 58 (1):  74-95.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0074 Abstract ( 1812 )   HTML ( 56 )   PDF (746KB) ( 2012 )   Peer Review Comments As artificial intelligence (AI) assumes an increasingly prominent role in high-stakes decision-making, the ethical challenges it raises have become a pressing concern. This paper systematically investigates the moral deficiency effect in AI decision making by integrating mind perception theory with moral dualism. Through this framework, we identify a dual-path psychological mechanism and propose targeted intervention strategies. Our first investigation, Study 1, explored the limitations of AI in moral judgment using scenarios rooted in the Chinese socio-cultural context. Across three representative situations—educational, age, and gender discrimination—the moral response scores for AI-generated decisions were significantly lower than for those made by human agents. These findings not only align with existing Western research on AI’s moral judgment deficits but also suggest that the moral deficiency effect is generalizable across cultures. To understand why this deficiency occurs, Study 2 investigated the underlying psychological mechanisms. Drawing on mind perception theory and moral dualism, we proposed a dual-path mediation model involving perceived agency and perceived experience. We conducted three sub-studies that first tested these two mediators separately and then assessed their combined effects. Using experimental mediation, we provided the first causal evidence of how the decision-maker's identity (AI vs. human) interacts with dimensions of mind perception. Specifically, when participants perceived an AI as having greater agency and experience, their moral approval of its decisions significantly increased—an effect not observed with human decision-makers. Structural equation modeling further confirmed a synergistic effect between the two paths, indicating their combined explanatory power exceeds that of either one alone. This suggests that in the real world, moral responses to AI are influenced simultaneously by both cognitive pathways. Building on these mechanistic insights, Study 3 tested intervention strategies to mitigate the AI-induced moral deficiency effect. In a double-blind, randomized controlled experiment, we evaluated two approaches: anthropomorphic design and mental expectancy enhancement. Both strategies significantly improved moral responses by increasing participants' perceptions of the AI's agency and experience. Moreover, a combined intervention produced a stronger effect than either strategy did alone. Although these interventions target different elements—one focusing on the AI system and the other on human cognition—they both operate through the shared mechanism of mind perception. By doing so, they effectively enhance moral accountability for an AI's unethical behavior, offering a practical pathway to address moral deficiencies in AI decision-making. Ultimately, this research provides a novel contribution to the field of “algorithmic ethics.” Unlike traditional approaches that emphasize technical design principles and fairness algorithms, our study adopts a psychological perspective that centers on the human recipient of AI-driven decisions. Practically, we propose actionable intervention strategies grounded in mind perception, while our synergistic model provides a robust framework for AI ethical governance. Collectively, these findings deepen the understanding of moral judgment in AI contexts, guide the development of algorithmic accountability systems, and support the optimization of human− AI collaboration—thereby establishing a critical psychological foundation for the ethical deployment of AI. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Underused skills lead to lost drive? The impact of employees’ perceived overqualification on work passion XIANG Shuting, ZHOU Zhirui, XIE Xiaoyun, ZHANG Yucheng, WU Shan 2026, 58 (1):  96-112.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0096 Abstract ( 1137 )   HTML ( 36 )   PDF (695KB) ( 1179 )   Peer Review Comments At present, given the continuous expansion of higher education and increasing competition in the job market, workers are increasingly choosing to engage in jobs below their actual capabilities, resulting in a sense of qualification surplus, which has received widespread attention from researchers. Previous studies on the impact of perceived overqualification on employees' work passion have reported inconsistent results, and the influence of perceived overqualification on employees' harmonious work passion and obsessive work passion has not yet been clarified. In this study, which was based on self-concept theory, a nonlinear theoretical model with two-stage moderation had been constructed to explore the mechanism underlying the impact of employees' perceived overqualification on their work passion and the relevant boundary conditions, alongside the effect of work passion on job performance. Through a questionnaire survey, research data were collected from a large state-owned bank in Southwest China. The questionnaire was drawn or adapted from mature questionnaires. We distributed surveys to frontline employees and their direct supervisors at 253 bank branches, and data collection involved 4 time points separated by 3-week intervals. Through a rigorous four-phase matching process, we excluded samples with missing data, resulting in 856 paired leader−employee data points across the four time points. Since the data in this study were nested, multilevel regression modeling was used to capture the within-level effects and between-level effects simultaneously. The findings are as follows: (1) An inverted U-shaped relationship was observed between perceived overqualification and perceived relative job advantage. (2) Perceived justice of performance evaluation weakened the curvilinear relationship between perceived overqualification and perceived relative job advantage, such that at high levels of perceived justice of performance evaluation, the nonlinear relationship between perceived overqualification and perceived relative job advantage became more attenuated. (3) Perceived relative job advantage was positively correlated with both employees' harmonious passion and obsessive passion; (4) A nonlinear mediated moderating effect was observed, such that the interaction effect of employees' perceived overqualification and perceived justice of performance evaluation indirectly affected both harmonious and obsessive passion via perceived relative job advantage; (5) Leaders' enhancement of work meaningfulness positively moderated the relationship between perceived relative job advantage and work passion. Finally, (6) harmonious passion was positively correlated with employees' in-role and extra-role performance. This study makes the following contributions. First, it innovatively explores the nonlinear relationship between perceived overqualification and employees' work passion, thereby resolving the inconsistencies in previous research on this potential relationship. Second, it proposes a mechanism to explain how perceived overqualification affects work passion based on self-concept theory, thus helping scholars clarify the influence of perceived overqualification from a theoretical perspective and expanding the scope of self-concept theory. Third, it enriches the boundary conditions associated with the impact of perceived overqualification on employees' work passion and clarifies the impacts of task and social feedback according to self-concept theory. The conclusions of this study also have practical significance for companies seeking to motivate overqualified employees and respond to the national goal of high-quality and full employment. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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How leaders’ interpersonal emotion regulation strategies can attenuate the self-maintaining effect of employee venting? A venter−recipient interaction perspective ZHANG Shengjun, ZHOU Jianjun, WAN Guoguang, LIU Fangzhou, LONG Lirong, PANG Xuhong 2026, 58 (1):  113-129.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0113 Abstract ( 696 )   HTML ( 22 )   PDF (964KB) ( 1671 )   Peer Review Comments Employee venting is a significant and prevalent challenge in modern workplace. Although many employees vent to alleviate dissatisfaction and negative emotions, some literature suggests that this practice may not resolve naturally; instead, it could lead to emotional disorders. However, the existing literature has not adequately explained this phenomenon. Furthermore, although employees (venters) often expect leaders (recipients) to resolve their issues, some scholars have noted that leaders may not only fail to help but could also worsen the situation. This problem may stem from the tendency of previous research to focus exclusively on either the venter or the recipient, overlooking the possibility that leaders could proactively use interpersonal influence strategies during their interactions with employees. This study adopts a venter−recipient interaction perspective to explain why employee venting is self-maintaining and how leaders can mitigate this effect using interpersonal emotion regulation strategies focused on situation modification. Drawing on cognitive neoassociation theory, we propose that anger mediates the relationship between daily employee venting and subsequent venting. We hypothesize that when leaders use situation modification, this indirect effect of daily venting on subsequent venting through anger will be reduced. Conversely, other interpersonal emotion regulation strategies (i.e., attentional deployment, cognitive change, and modulating the emotional response) are not expected to be as effective as situation modification in attenuating this self-maintaining cycle. To test our theoretical model, we employed an experience sampling method design. We collected data over 10 consecutive workdays, which extended our understanding of venter-recipient interactions in a real-world setting. Our sample included 119 subordinates and their 60 supervisors (resulting in 1032 matched observations) from a petroleum company in China. Our research makes significant contributions to the literature on venting and related fields. First, although some employees and scholars believe that venting relieves negative emotions, our study identifies a parallel path by demonstrating that venting to leaders can be self-maintaining. Second, unlike previous studies that have focused solely on the venter or recipient, our research adopts a social interaction perspective. This approach highlights the proactive role leaders can play by using interpersonal emotion regulation strategies to attenuate the self-maintaining effect of employee venting. Third, where past research focused on the direct influence of interpersonal emotional regulation on individual emotions and relationships, our study reveals that leaders’ emotional regulation strategies can regulate the relationship between venting and employees’ subsequent reactions. This enriches our understanding of the role of these strategies. For practical implications, our findings indicate that venting to leaders is not a fleeting issue but rather produces a self-maintaining effect. Organizations and management should address this promptly by implementing effective interventions. Specifically, managers should be trained to use situation modification, as our research shows it is more effective in attenuating this self-maintaining cycle than other strategies. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The inverted U-shaped relationship between Supervisor−Subordinate Guanxi and proactive career behavior: From cross-boundary perspective ZHONG Jie, NI Dan, ZHENG Xiaoming, MA Chao 2026, 58 (1):  130-150.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0130 Abstract ( 665 )   HTML ( 17 )   PDF (689KB) ( 826 )   Peer Review Comments Drawing from boundary theory, we examine the impact of supervisor−subordinate guanxi (SSG) on proactive career behavior, while exploring the mediating effect of career intrusion and moderating roles of occupational future time perspective and organizational support for employee development. We propose that the relationship between SSG and proactive career behavior follows an inverted U-shape. Specifically, high levels of occupational future time perspective and organizational support encourage employees to prioritize their personal career boundaries, which amplifies the negative impact of overly close SSG on their career development via career intrusion. To investigate the impact of SSG on employee proactive career behavior, we conducted three empirical studies. Study 1 examines the direct relationship between SSG and proactive career behavior, revealing an inverted U-shaped association that highlights the potential downsides of overly strong guanxi. Study 2 explores the boundary conditions of this relationship by testing the moderating effects of occupational future time perspective and organizational support for employee development. Building on these findings, Study 3 integrates career intrusion as a mediating mechanism and further validates the overall model. Through three studies, we find that: (1) a significant inverted U-shaped relationship exists between SSG and proactive career behavior; (2) a significant U-shaped relationship exists between SSG and career intrusion; (3) when occupational future time perspective and organizational support are higher, employees tend to experience higher career intrusion and reduce proactive career behavior in response to overly close SSG in order to protect their career autonomy, thus strengthening the inverted U-shape; (4) when occupational future time perspective and organizational support are lower, employees are less likely to experience career intrusion and tend to increase proactive career behavior to reciprocate their leaders, which weakens the inverted U-shaped relationship between SSG and proactive career behavior. This research advances the literature by investigating the complex relationship between SSG and proactive career behavior from the cross-boundary perspective, exploring the mediating role of career intrusion and revealing how occupational future time perspective and organizational support serve as boundary conditions in this dynamic. The findings provide new insights into understanding the influence of SSG on career development, particularly within the Chinese cultural context, and have important theoretical and practical implications for scholars and practitioners alike. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Experience-gained vs. time-elapsed: How different types of aging mindset affect fashion consumption? WANG Jing, WANG Xuehua, FAN Xiucheng 2026, 58 (1):  151-165.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0151 Abstract ( 1241 )   HTML ( 28 )   PDF (1208KB) ( 1417 )   Peer Review Comments Population aging is a defining global trend of our time. People are living longer, and the proportion of older adults is rising worldwide. Developing the silver economy has therefore become an important initiative to address this demographic shift. To fully unlock the consumption potential of older adults, it is essentially to understand whether, and how, different types of aging mindset influence consumer behaviour. This research compares two important and prevalent types of aging mindset: experience-gained and time-elapsed. Across five studies employing diverse research designs (correlational and experimental), samples (from the U.S. and China), and measures of fashion consumption (fashion involvement, fashion consumption preference, fashion product purchase intention), we investigate the effect of an experience-gained (vs. time-elapsed) aging mindset on fashion consumption, examining both its underlying mechanism and boundary condition among respondents aged 55 and above. Specifically, we conducted pilot study using a survey to examine the correlational relationship between attitudes towards aging and fashion consumption. Four subsequent intervention experiments established the causal link between aging mindset and fashion consumption. In these experiments, aging mindset was manipulated using verbal and recall tasks: participants in the time-elapsed (vs. experience-gained) condition wrote about personal experiences in which they felt “aging means time-elapsed (vs. experience-gained).” Studies 1-3 used one-factor (aging mindset: time-elapsed vs. experience-gained) between-subjects design. Study 1 tested the influence of aging mindset on preference for fashionable products. Study 2 examined whether aging mindset influenced fashion consumption when product stimuli differed in fashionability but were similar in uniqueness, and ruled out alternative explanation such as subjective age and perceived control. Study 3 investigated the mediating role of perceived aging-related threat in the relationship between aging mindset and fashion consumption intention, while also testing other competing alternative explanations (e.g., present-focus and meaning in life). Finally, Study 4 employed a 2 (aging mindset: time-elapsed vs. experience-gained) × 2 (mortality salience: high vs. low) experimental design to test the moderating role of mortality salience. The results reveal that individuals with an experience-gained aging mindset are more likely to engage in fashion consumption than those with a time-elapsed mindset. Perception of aging-related threat mediates this focal relationship: an experience-gained aging mindset reduces perceived aging-related threat, which in turn increases fashion consumption. Moreover, mortality salience moderates the effect of aging mindset on fashion consumption intention, such that the positive effect of an experience-gained (vs. time-elapsed) mindset on preference for fashion products disappears when mortality salience is high (vs. low). This paper contributes new insights into how older adults perceive their past experiences and the aging process. It shows that those with an experience-gained (vs. time-elapsed) mindset demonstrate stronger intentions to engage in fashion consumption. These findings extend the literature on older consumers by establishing aging mindset as a novel psychological antecedent of fashion consumption. Furthermore, by identifying perception of aging-related threat as a key underlying mechanism and mortality salience as a boundary condition, this article advances research on subjective views of aging, mortality salience, and older adults’ self-concept and identity. It also provides theoretical guidance for marketers in developing more targeted marketing strategies based on different aging mindsets. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Teamwork cognitive diagnostic modeling with higher-order cognitive interaction between team members ZHAN Peida, WANG Zhimou, CHU Gaohong, HAO Ning 2026, 58 (1):  166-179.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0166 Abstract ( 493 )   HTML ( 11 )   PDF (1501KB) ( 417 )   Peer Review Comments Teamwork involves individuals collaborating to achieve shared goals that exceed individual capabilities. As a team-level construct, team cognition plays a critical role in effective teamwork by integrating individual expertise and fostering shared understanding. Identifying the causes of inefficiencies or poor performance in teams is essential for implementing targeted interventions and promoting the development of team cognition. However, traditional cognitive diagnosis models (CDMs), which are limited to individual problem-solving contexts, are inadequate for diagnosing team cognition in collaborative settings. To address this, this study introduces a teamwork DINA (Team-DINA) model, an extension of the traditional DINA model for individual cognitive diagnosis, specifically designed to analyze teamwork response data. The proposed model constructs the formation mechanism of team members' individual cognitions into team cognition based on a higher-order latent structure. Further, it is hypothesized that individual cognition affects the mastery of individual cognitive attributes, while team cognition influences the mastery of team-level cognitive attributes. This allows for the simultaneous assessment of cognitive attribute mastery and the collective cognitive ability of both the team and its individual members. To demonstrate the practical applicability of the model, a dyadic teamwork matrix reasoning test was conducted. Additionally, two simulation studies were carried out to evaluate the psychometric performance of the model. The results of the empirical study revealed that the Team-DINA model provides a deeper understanding of teamwork performance and identifies specific cognitive factors affecting team outcomes. The simulation studies highlighted two main findings: (1) The model demonstrates strong psychometric performance across various test scenarios, with improvements in model accuracy achieved by increasing the number of items and teams; (2) When the test includes an equal number of independent and collaborative response items, the model parameters are recovered in a balanced and appropriate manner, allowing for flexible adjustments of item proportions to enhance measurement accuracy. Overall, the proposed Team-DINA model fills a critical methodological gap in the field of team cognition diagnosis and expands the application of cognitive diagnostic measurement paradigms from individual cognitive diagnosis to teamwork cognitive diagnosis. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics