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The convergence of reciprocity motivation through observational learning: Individual differences and the role of social authority NAN Yu, SUN Donglin, ZHOU Xiaolin, GAO Xiaoxue 2025, 57 (12):  2083-2099.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2083 Abstract ( 3299 )   HTML ( 247 )   PDF (1005KB) ( 5388 )   Peer Review Comments Previous studies have shown that the reciprocal behaviors of beneficiaries stem from the trade-off between two emotional motivations: gratitude and guilt as communal motivations (internal motivations) that promote reciprocity, while the sense of obligation as an obligation motivation (external motivation) that promotes reciprocity. However, an excessive preference for either obligation motivation (obligation-motivated individuals) or communal motivation (communal-motivated individuals) during reciprocity may lead to negative social effects. What factors can modulate the reciprocal preferences of obligation-motivated and communal-motivated individuals? Whether these factors differentially affect the reciprocity behaviors and underlying emotional motivations of the two types of individuals? Addressing these questions not only helps to deepen our understanding of the dynamic process of human reciprocal behavior but also provides the theoretical bases for individual social decision-making, the formulation of relevant social policies, and the interventions in related issues. To answer these questions, we conducted two behavioral experiments by incorporating an observational learning stage into the previously established interpersonal task of favor-receiving and reciprocity, and applying computational modeling to quantitatively capture individual reciprocal preferences (the relative weight of how obligation and communal motivations contribute to reciprocity). Experiment 1 employed a 2 (testing phase: before vs. after observational learning) × 2 (participant’s emotional motivation preference: communal-motivated vs. obligation-motivated) mixed experimental design, aiming to preliminarily explore the impact of observational learning on the reciprocity behavior and underlying emotional motivations of obligation-motivated and communal-motivated individuals. The results showed that for both types of individuals, observational learning significantly promoted their reciprocal preferences to converge with those of the observed individuals, with a stronger observational learning effect observed in obligation-motivated individuals. Experiment 2 employed a 2 (testing phase: before vs. after observational learning) × 2 (participant’s emotional motivation preference: communal-motivated vs. obligation-motivated) × 2 (the authority of the observed individual: authoritative vs. non-authoritative) mixed experimental design, aiming to further validate the findings of Experiment 1 and explore the boundary conditions of the differences in observational learning effects between the two groups by manipulating the authority of the observed individual. The results replicated the findings and further showed that the observational learning effects on the reciprocal preferences of the two types of individuals were moderated by the authority of the observed individual, with a stronger moderating effect observed in communal-motivated individuals. In summary, for both obligation-motivated and communal-motivated individuals, observational learning can promote their reciprocity behavior and emotional motivations to converge with those of the observed individuals. The sensitivity of the two types of individuals to observational learning differs and is moderated by the authority of the observed individual: obligation-motivated individuals exhibit a stronger observational learning effect and are less moderated by the authority of the observed individual, while communal-motivated individuals show a weaker observational learning effect but are significantly moderated by the authority of the observed individual. This study provides new evidence for understanding the dynamics of reciprocity behavior and provides implications for individual social decision-making, the formulation of relevant social policies, and the interventions in related issues. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Perceptual or conceptual? Modulation of fear generalization pathways by prior learning experience FENG Biao, ZHANG Donghuan, CHEN Wei, ZENG Ling, WU Xiaoyue, HUANG Junlin, ZHENG Xifu 2025, 57 (12):  2100-2115.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2100 Abstract ( 1985 )   HTML ( 140 )   PDF (961KB) ( 3043 )   Peer Review Comments Excessive fear generalization is a core symptom of various anxiety disorders, where unbounded fear or avoidance imposes significant burdens on patients' lives. Previous studies have shown that human fear responses can propagate along the perceptual information (perceptual fear generalization) or conceptual information (conceptual fear generalization) of stimuli. In general, any stimulus inherently contains both perceptual and conceptual attributes. Following fear conditioning to stimulus compounds, the factors that regulate the two pathways of fear generalization are an intriguing topic. Recent research suggests that the object recognition process plays an important role in fear generalization. Given that attention orientation significantly influences object recognition, this study hypothesizes that prior experience may shape individuals' attentional biases, thereby affecting their recognition and categorization of generalized stimuli and ultimately regulating the pathways of fear generalization. This study employed a classical differential fear conditioning paradigm using unconditioned stimulus (US) expectancy and skin conductance response (SCR) as measures to examine whether pre-acquisition learning experiences modulate the two fear generalization pathways. A set of 100 images was used as experimental material. These images were systematically categorized into eight groups: C+P+, C-P-, C-P+, C+P-, C+P0, C-P0, C0P-, C0P+ (where “C” = Conceptual, “P” = Perceptual, “+” = Threatening, “-” = Safe, and 0 = Neutral). Fifty university students were recruited and randomly assigned to perceptual or conceptual groups. During the pre-acquisition learning phase (40 trials), the perceptual group made judgments on the perceptual attributes of the stimuli (color discrimination) to enhance perceptual processing, whereas the conceptual group judged conceptual attributes (object categorization) to strengthen conceptual processing. Subsequently, both the groups underwent identical fear acquisition and generalization tests. In the fear acquisition phase (16 trials), participants underwent differential fear conditioning to compound stimuli that were either absolutely threatening or absolutely safe in both perceptual and conceptual dimensions (i.e., C+P+, C-P-). During the generalization test (two test phases, each with eight trials), eight different generalization stimuli blending perceptual and conceptual features (as previously described), were presented to assess fear generalization. The results revealed that participants in the perceptual group exhibited significant perceptual fear generalization, whereas those in the conceptual group showed pronounced conceptual fear generalization. These findings indicated that prior experience significantly modulated the pathways of fear generalization and confirmed both pathways as effective routes for fear generalization. Additionally, an intriguing finding emerged: apart from conceptual fear generalization, the conceptual group also displayed a tendency for perceptual fear generalization, whereas the perceptual group showed no signs of conceptual fear generalization. This asymmetric pattern was consistently observed in both the US expectancy and SCR measures, demonstrating a robust effect. These findings can be explained by the differences in information processing and attentional biases between the two groups, suggesting distinct roles of perceptual and conceptual information in eliciting human fear responses. Theoretical and clinical implications were discussed. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Childhood abuse and adolescent non-suicidal self-injury: The effects of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis multilocus genetic variation and depression WU Yue, LÜ Wei 2025, 57 (12):  2116-2130.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2116 Abstract ( 2333 )   HTML ( 155 )   PDF (538KB) ( 3946 )   Peer Review Comments Exposure to childhood abuse increases the risk of non-suicidal self-injury among adolescents. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Based on the theoretical perspective of gene × environment- endophenotype-behavioral phenotype, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis genetic variation as an indicator of individual diathesis or susceptibility has been shown to interact with childhood trauma to affect adolescent non-suicidal self-injury. Additionally, depression as a potential endophenotype for non-suicidal self-injury can be considered a pathway through which childhood abuse and HPA axis genetic variation interactively affect adolescent non-suicidal self-injury. Accordingly, the present study sought to investigate the moderating role of multilocus genetic profile score (MGPS) of the HPA axis and the mediating role of depression in the association between childhood abuse and adolescent non-suicidal self-injury. The present study included two independent samples (the main sample included 407 adolescents, Mage = 12.77, SD = 0.74; another retest sample included 109 adolescents, Mage = 12.54, SD = 0.60). Scales including the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form, Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale, and Non-suicidal Self-injury Scale derived from the Revised Diagnostic Interview for Borderlines were administered to adolescents. Their saliva samples were collected for DNA genotyping to obtain the polymorphisms of CRHR1 rs110402, FKBP5 rs1360780, rs4713902, NR3C1 rs41423247, and COMT rs4680. The HPA axis MGPS was calculated according to the number of at-risk or susceptible genotypes carried, with higher levels representing higher genetic risk or susceptibility. Results showed that childhood abuse was positively associated with adolescent non-suicidal self-injury. In addition, although childhood abuse and HPA axis MGPS had no direct interactive effect on adolescent non-suicidal self-injury, they indirectly interactively affect adolescent non-suicidal self-injury via depression. Specifically, compared with adolescents with low HPA axis MGPS, those with high HPA axis MGPS showed a stronger positive association between childhood abuse and depression, which increased the risks of non-suicidal self-injury. Similar results were obtained in the retest sample, with a positive relation between childhood abuse and depression only observed among adolescents with high HPA axis MGPS who have increased risks of non-suicidal self-injury. The re-parameterized regression model tests in both samples suggested that the pattern of interaction between childhood abuse and HPA axis MGPS supported the diathesis-stress model. Findings of the present study supported the theoretical perspective of gene × environment-endophenotype- behavioral phenotype, by suggesting that childhood abuse interacts with the HPA axis genetic variants to affect non-suicidal self-injury via depression among adolescents. These findings shed light on the underlying mechanism linking childhood abuse with adolescent non-suicidal self-injury. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The concept and dimensional characteristics of spiritual support for older adults in contemporary China FAN Yunge, MA Zijuan, LIN Weishi, ZHANG Rui, WANG Dongfang, FAN Fang 2025, 57 (12):  2131-2148.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2131 Abstract ( 1329 )   HTML ( 80 )   PDF (599KB) ( 1869 )   Peer Review Comments In recent decades, the material and economic conditions of China’s elderly population have steadily improved, shifting attention toward their higher-level needs, particularly spiritual well-being. With the rapid growth of the aging population, spiritual support has become a critical yet often overlooked issue in gerontology, social policy, and health promotion. While there is broad recognition of the importance of spiritual care for older adults, the academic literature still lacks a clear conceptual framework, well-defined characteristic dimensions, and validated measurement tools for spiritual support. Moreover, the mechanisms through which spiritual support affects the health and quality of life of elderly individuals remain insufficiently understood. Addressing these gaps is essential for both advancing theory and guiding the design of effective interventions and policy initiatives in the context of contemporary China. This study sought to establish a comprehensive understanding of spiritual support for the elderly by combining theoretical analysis with empirical research. A mixed-methods approach was employed across three sequential studies. In Study 1, in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with elderly individuals and their caregivers to explore perceptions, experiences, and expectations of spiritual support. These interviews were analyzed using grounded theory to generate an inductive model of spiritual support, leading to the identification of its core dimensions. Based on these findings, a preliminary measurement scale was developed. In Study 2, a large-scale survey involving 1 117 elderly participants was conducted to validate this scale. The results confirmed the factor structure, internal consistency, and construct validity of the instrument, establishing it as a reliable tool for assessing perceived spiritual support. In Study 3, a longitudinal survey of 237 older adults examined the predictive role of spiritual support on health-related outcomes over time, thereby testing the practical significance of the proposed framework. The analyses revealed that spiritual support for elderly individuals comprises five key dimensions: health security (sense of security), social interaction (sense of belonging), educational activities (sense of competence), independence (sense of autonomy), and meaning in life (sense of value). Together, these dimensions capture the multifaceted nature of spiritual support in the Chinese cultural and social context, integrating both individual needs and broader social relationships. The newly developed measurement scale based on these dimensions demonstrated strong psychometric properties across different samples. Furthermore, the longitudinal findings indicated that higher levels of perceived spiritual support significantly predicted positive health outcomes, including improved physical and mental quality of life, reduced frailty, and better cognitive functioning. These results highlight the protective and promotive role of spiritual support in aging, extending beyond immediate psychological benefits to long-term well-being. This research makes several contributions. Theoretically, it clarifies the concept of spiritual support and identifies its characteristic dimensions, providing a foundation for future studies in gerontology, psychology, and social work. Methodologically, it develops and validates a culturally sensitive measurement tool that enables the systematic assessment of spiritual support among older adults in China. Practically, the findings underscore the necessity of incorporating spiritual support into community services, caregiving practices, and public policy. By demonstrating the substantial long-term effects of spiritual support on both physical and mental health, this study provides strong empirical evidence to inform interventions and strategies aimed at enhancing the overall well-being of older adults. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of marriage on life satisfaction trajectories during emerging adulthood: A ten-year longitudinal study based on China Family Panel Studies PENG Wang, YAN Ping, ZHOU Yaping, Xiang Yanhui 2025, 57 (12):  2149-2164.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2149 Abstract ( 2441 )   HTML ( 110 )   PDF (1678KB) ( 3269 )   Peer Review Comments Marriage is widely debated regarding its impact on individuals' developmental trajectories of life satisfaction, a question of profound significance for both social well-being and personal quality of life. In collectivist societies such as China, marriage may involve distinct mechanisms related to familial responsibilities and social support. However, longitudinal empirical research examining marriage events and their trajectories of life satisfaction in the Chinese context remains scarce. Drawing on hedonic adaptation theory and the buffering model of social support, this study systematically investigated how marriage impacts life satisfaction trajectories across different age stages in emerging adulthood and examined the dual mediation mechanisms of positive affect and negative symptoms, utilizing a decade of large-scale longitudinal data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS, 2010-2020). Data from CFPS included a longitudinal sample of 1, 603 married participants and 5 778 matched unmarried controls aged 18~29 years. Propensity score matching (PSM) was conducted to form comparable married and unmarried groups based on demographic characteristics (gender, age, education, income, health status, and employment) and temporal factors (survey participation years and measurement frequency). Based on the matched sample, we fitted several distinct multilevel linear models, each using a different time indicator, to evaluate life satisfaction trajectories surrounding marriage events. Furthermore, we examined the mediating effects of positive affect and negative symptoms in two post-marriage time windows (0-2 years and more than 2 years after marriage). Results showed that marriage, on average, significantly and durably improved life satisfaction, with marked age heterogeneity: the effect was non-significant among individuals aged 18~21; those aged 22~25 exhibited a “rise-then-decline” pattern after marriage; and those aged 26~29 showed an anticipatory increase before marriage that remained stable thereafter. Mediation analyses further indicated a dual mechanism. Overall, sustained gains were jointly accounted for by increased positive affect and the buffering of negative symptoms; however, the mediating paths also varied by age: for ages 18~21, neither path was significant; for ages 22~25, mediation operated through elevated positive affect during the first 0~2 years post-marriage and shifted to buffering of negative symptoms beyond 2 years; and for ages 26~29, the effect was predominantly mediated by buffering of negative symptoms. Sex differences indicated similar overall gains for women and men, with men displaying a more pronounced anticipatory effect prior to marriage. The study systematically revealed how marriage influenced life satisfaction trajectories among emerging adults in China and suggested the potential dual-stage, dual-pathway mediation mechanisms behind this relationship, highlighting notable age-related heterogeneity. Theoretically, these findings challenged the traditiona1l hedonic adaptation perspective of short-lived marital effects, expanding a dynamic understanding of marital happiness mechanisms within collectivist cultures. Practically, this research provides age- and mechanism-specific insights for marriage education and family policy interventions to enhance the well-being of young adults. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of smoker identity on interpretive bias among smokers: The role of cognitive load CHEN Haide, ZHANG Heng, WANG Jia, GAO Lingfeng 2025, 57 (12):  2165-2176.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2165 Abstract ( 1825 )   HTML ( 169 )   PDF (553KB) ( 2756 )   Peer Review Comments Cognitive biases have been widely recognized as significant impediments to successful smoking cessation. Although a growing body of studies has examined attentional biases in smokers, potential interpretive biases towards smoking-related cues remain underexplored. According to the incentive sensitization theory of addiction, the dual-process model, and the cognitive mechanisms of addiction, cognitive bias towards drugs originates from associations between addiction-related cues and associated cognitive responses. On the basis of schema theory and the self-reference effect, a smoker identity, which refers to an association between smoking and self-concept, may act as a trigger for interpretive bias towards smoke-related cues. Additionally, it remains unclear whether cognitive load modulates the formation of smoking-related interpretive bias. Given these issues, the present study aimed to explore the characteristics of smoking-related interpretive bias and to examine the roles of a smoker identity and cognitive load on this bias. The present study included three experiments. Experiment 1 compared discrepancies in interpretive bias between smokers and nonsmokers. Interpretive bias was measured with open-ended scenarios that contained smoking-related and neutral target sentences. Thirty-six smokers and thirty-nine nonsmokers were recruited and completed the experimental task. Experiment 2 examined the effect of a smoker identity on smoking-related interpretive bias. Sixty-two smokers were recruited and were randomly assigned to either the high-smoker- identity group or the low-smoker-identity group. A smoker identity was manipulated by the social identity salience paradigm. Experiment 3 examined the role of cognitive load in the process by which a smoker identity influences smoking-related interpretive bias. Sixty smokers were recruited and were randomly assigned to two groups according to their degree of smoker identity. Cognitive load was manipulated by a digit memorization task. Experiment 1 revealed that the score for smoking-related interpretive bias in smokers was significantly greater than the score for nonsmokers. Experiment 2 revealed that the score for smoking-related interpretive bias in smokers with a higher smoker identity was significantly greater than the score for smokers with a lower smoker identity. Experiment 3 revealed that the interactive effect of smoker identity and cognitive load on interpretive bias was marginally significant. Simple effects analyses revealed that the impact of smoker identity on smoking-related interpretive bias under the low cognitive load condition was stronger than the impact under the high cognitive load condition. The present study demonstrates notable theoretical relevance and practical implications. First, the findings concerning the characteristics of smoking-related interpretive bias expand understanding of the components of smokers’ cognitive bias. Second, the findings concerning the role of smoker identity in smoking-related interpretive bias provide a novel perspective for understanding the psychosocial mechanisms of this bias. Finally, the findings of the effect of cognitive load on smoking-related interpretive bias suggest that the potential pathways and conditions of cognitive resources should be considered to understand the process of smoking- related interpretive bias. The results enrich the theoretical framework of a cognitive perspective on smoking- related research and provide insight on the promotion of tobacco control in China. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Acceptance of work allocation to intelligent robots in monetary and moral contexts: Based on independent and collaborative work models JIANG Duo, LUO Zhenwang, HUANG Weiqi, LUO Nanbao, CHEN Yawen 2025, 57 (12):  2177-2201.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2177 Abstract ( 1017 )   HTML ( 86 )   PDF (959KB) ( 1320 )   Peer Review Comments With the development of artificial intelligence technology, intelligent robots have begun to assume work entities in the workforce. As both humans and intelligent robots participate as workers, it becomes necessary to address how work should be allocated between them. To answer this question, it is essential to understand the types of tasks that humans are willing to accept being performed by intelligent robots within the social division of labor. From the mind perception theory, intelligent robots possess moderate agency and low experience. Current researches indicate that, due to differences in mind, humans and intelligent robots differ in the types of tasks they can effectively undertake. Mind disparity may influence judgments about the responsibilities that humans and intelligent robots can bear in the workplace, thereby affecting work allocation. Despite intelligent robots having lower agency and experience than humans, their significant computational and storage capabilities suggest that the integration of humans and intelligent robots represents an emerging trend (human-robot team). Additionally, in the workplace, there exist collaborative forms of human-human and robot-robot teamwork. When the work entities shift from individual to group forms, what changes occur in the mind of collaborative teams compared to individuals? How do these changes influence the responsibilities that each collaborative team can undertake and the acceptance of work allocations? This study will explore the impact of work entity types and collaborative forms on the acceptance of work allocation based on the mind perception theory. This research comprises four behavioral experiments. Study 1 (N = 100, 43 females) and Study 2 (N = 100, 48 females) utilize contextual decision-making tasks to investigate whether individuals accept work allocations to humans or intelligent robots in scenarios involving monetary or moral outcomes. Participants are required to read the experimental scenarios (which have been validated through a pre-experiment) and understand the allocation of work tasks. They then decide whether to accept the proposed work allocation. Study 3 (N = 100, 49 females) and Study 4 (N = 100, 48 females) further examine whether collaborative teams involving multiple agents influence acceptance of work allocation. The collaborative teams consist of human-human, human-robot, and robot-robot teams, while maintaining the monetary and moral contexts established in the earlier two studies. The main results of this study are as follows: (1) In both monetary and moral tasks, individuals are more inclined to accept the allocation of loss-related work to robots, whereas benefit-related work is preferentially assigned to humans; (2) The differentiated mind of humans and robots lead to differences in the responsibilities they can assume, ultimately resulting in the allocation of tasks with distinct gain-loss works; (3) When work agents form collaborative teams, a collective mind emerges; (4) Collaborative teams configured as human-human, human-robot, and robot-robot demonstrated a progressive decline in collective mind. Consequently, the monetary and moral responsibilities that these teams could undertake diminished in the same order, thereby shaping the allocation of monetary and moral tasks. Based on the theory of mind perception, this research elucidates the psychological mechanisms underlying the acceptance of work allocation among different entity types and collaborative teams. These insights hold significance for clarifying the role and position of intelligent robots in the division of labor, as well as for the rational allocation of tasks between humans and intelligent robots. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Equity or efficiency? Impact of completion motivation on prosocial behavior preferences LI Weiwei, OU Minhua, KANG Zhiqiang, WEN Yuting, LIN Xueqing 2025, 57 (12):  2202-2219.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2202 Abstract ( 1887 )   HTML ( 130 )   PDF (826KB) ( 2266 )   Peer Review Comments In prosocial behavior, helpers often face a trade-off between equity and efficiency due to limited resources. Previous research has shown that individuals are prone to prioritize equitable resource distribution when faced with incompatibility between fairness and efficiency. This tendency indicates that helpers frequently overlook the efficiency of aid provided to a minority in favor of equal assistance to a large group. This study hypothesizes that when the efficiency of assisting a few individuals reaches 100%, helpers may be prompted by completion motivation, resulting in a change in their decision-making regarding equity and efficiency. We conducted six experiments to validate our hypothesis. Experiment 1 (N = 194) examined individual prosocial decision-making preferences in situations where assistance could not be fully provided (non-completable situations; inefficient help for all) as opposed to situations where complete assistance could be provided for a few beneficiaries (completable situations; efficient help for minority). Experiment 2 (N = 115) explored how different levels of efficiency in options influence individual helping preferences in non-completable situations, thus controlling for potential confounding effects of preference for high efficiency. Based on the results of Experiments 1 and 2, Experiment 3 (N = 164) further explored the mechanisms underlying the differences in helping preferences in these scenarios, thereby highlighting the mediating role of relative completion motivation. To investigate the contextual boundaries of completion motivation in shaping prosocial behavior preferences, Experiment 4 (N = 168) employed a refined experimental design that categorized helping contexts into survival-related and development-related situations. Building upon these findings, Experiment 5 (N = 133) examined whether completion motivation could enhance donation behaviors in broader prosocial contexts not constrained by fairness-efficiency trade-offs. Afterward, Experiment 6 (N = 123) was conducted to eliminate potential confounding effects of psychological ownership, thus strengthening the robustness of the observed relationship between completion motivation and prosocial behavior. The six experiments revealed that when the difficulties of all of the beneficiaries could not be completely resolved, participants displayed a strong preference for fairness. Conversely, when the difficulties of a few beneficiaries could be fully addressed, they showed a decreased inclination toward fairness and an increased inclination toward efficiency (Experiment 1). This notable shift in decision-making was significantly mediated by individual completion motivation (Experiment 3), rather than by a general preference for higher-efficiency options (Experiment 2). Specifically, in non-completable situations, a high motivation for fairness drove individuals to choose fair options. Conversely, in completable situations, an increased motivation for completion prompted more individuals to prefer efficiency options. Moreover, the stimulating effect of completion motivation on the preference for efficiency was observed solely in development-related helping contexts while proving ineffective in survival-related situations (Experiment 4). In addition, individual completion motivation had a significant positive influence on donation amounts in broader contexts where fairness considerations were absent (Experiment 5), after controlling for potential confounding effects of psychological ownership (Experiment 6). This study significantly enhances our understanding of the relationship between equity and efficiency in prosocial behavior by highlighting the critical role of completion motivation. The findings suggest that helpers are apt to prioritize fairness when no one can benefit completely; however, they shift toward efficiency when some individuals can be fully assisted. These insights have practical implications for designing interventions aimed at promoting effective altruism, underscoring the importance of helping efficiency while considering the psychological motivations that influence individuals’ prosocial decisions. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of awe on prosociality: Psychological mechanisms across higher and lower SES individuals HU Xiaoyong, ZHAO Yue, JI Yuexin, MA Jiaxin 2025, 57 (12):  2220-2241.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2220 Abstract ( 1441 )   HTML ( 98 )   PDF (728KB) ( 1878 )   Peer Review Comments Awe is widely recognized as a prosocial emotion that can foster a concern for others’ welfare. Theoretical and empirical research suggests that awe enhances prosociality by diminishing the focus on the individual self (a “small self”) and encouraging the pursuit of a more “authentic self”, which is in alignment with one’s core values. However, the relationship between these two mechanisms-the small self and the authentic self-requires further examination, particularly due to their contrasting nature. Furthermore, existing research presents mixed findings on how awe’s impact varies across different socioeconomic status (SES) groups. There is also a lack of studies exploring whether SES influences how individuals experience different types of awe. To address these gaps, this research, encompassing five studies with a total of 1,114 participants, investigates the parallel indirect effects of awe on prosociality through the mechanisms of the small self and the pursuit of the authentic self. It also examines the moderating role of SES on these two mediating pathways. Additionally, the studies explore how SES affects the frequency and consequences of various types of awe experiences. Study 1 utilized a large-scale survey to investigate the fundamental relationship between awe and prosociality, testing the mediating roles of the small self and the pursuit of the authentic self. Study 2a, a 14-day diary study, examined how SES moderates the influence of daily awe experiences on the small self and the pursuit of the authentic self. Study 2b experimentally manipulated SES and awe to test the moderating effect of SES on the two mediating mechanisms and to assess SES-based differences in the frequency of aesthetic versus ability-based awe experiences. Studies 3a and 3b manipulated SES and specific types of awe (aesthetic, ability-based, or a general positive emotion) to further test the moderating role of SES on the mediating effects of different awe types on prosociality. The findings reveal that awe has a significant positive indirect effect on prosociality through the parallel mechanisms of the small self and the pursuit of the authentic self (Study 1). SES was found to moderate the positive effects of awe on both mechanisms (Studies 2a and 2b). Specifically, the experience of a “small self” was more pronounced among lower-SES individuals, while the pursuit of an “authentic self” was more significant for higher-SES individuals, with both pathways leading to increased prosociality. Lower-SES individuals reported more frequent experiences of awe related to ability and threat, whereas higher-SES individuals reported more frequent aesthetic awe (Study 2a). Finally, SES also moderated the effects of different types of awe on the two psychological mechanisms (Studies 3a and 3b). For lower-SES individuals, ability-based awe had a more significant effect on the small self, although this did not translate to a significant impact on prosocial variables. In contrast, for higher-SES individuals, aesthetic awe more strongly promoted the pursuit of an authentic self, which in turn positively influenced their prosociality. These studies clarify the dual mechanisms through which awe influences prosociality and situate their relationship within a comprehensive self-framework. The research also provides a deeper understanding of the mixed findings regarding SES’s moderation of awe’s effect on prosociality, suggesting that these inconsistencies may be linked to the psychological mechanisms that are most prominent under different social conditions. The findings highlight the unique roles of ability-based and aesthetic awe in triggering distinct psychological responses in lower and higher-SES individuals, respectively. Therefore, inducing specific types of awe experiences tailored to different SES groups could be a potential intervention for promoting prosocial behavior. These results contribute to a more nuanced understanding of awe’s important role as a positive emotion in fostering prosociality. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Psychological evidence of cultural integration in the Chinese nation: Experimental findings based on Han and Naxi ethnic groups in scenario experiments LONG Juan, WANG Ting, ZHANG Jijia 2025, 57 (12):  2242-2258.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2242 Abstract ( 869 )   HTML ( 25 )   PDF (835KB) ( 1016 )   Peer Review Comments Throughout Chinese history, various ethnic groups in China, through long-term exchanges, interactions, and integration, ultimately formed the Chinese nation. The cultures of these groups, influenced by mutual interaction, collectively gave rise to Chinese culture, with each ethnic group’s traditions incorporating elements from others. This cultural integration resulted in a situation where “you are in me and I am in you.” The custom of “Esteeming the Robust While Neglecting the Elderly” was characteristic of the ancient nomads of northern China, whereas “Respecting the Elderly and Cherishing the Young” has been a long-standing tradition among the Huaxia people. The concepts of “Hu-hua” among the Han ethnic group and “Sinicization” of ethnic minorities have represented tangible manifestations of cultural integration throughout Chinese history. This study, however, seeks to explore the psychological dimensions of cultural integration within the Chinese nation. Specifically, two experiments were conducted to investigate the intentions behind behaviors that guarantee support and help for the elderly, middle-aged, and children in different contexts. Experiment 1 involved middle-aged and elderly individuals, as well as high school students from Han and Naxi ethnic groups, with a single-factor experimental design. Three scenarios were created: food security, clothing security, and life security. The ethnic identities of the characters in the scenarios matched those of the participants. This experiment aimed to investigate the willingness of middle-aged and elderly individuals, as well as high school students from both Han and Naxi ethnic groups in the Hebei and Yunan regions, to provide security. Experiment 2 also involved middle-aged and elderly participants, as well as high school students from Han and Naxi ethnic groups, utilizing a three-factor mixed design. The scenarios in this experiment included: time companionship, financial assistance, and time-based intellectual support. Again, the ethnic identities of the characters in the scenarios were consistent with those of the subjects. The goal of this experiment was to assess the willingness of the participants from both Han and Naxi ethnic groups in the Hebei and Yunan regions to offer help in these contexts. The results indicated that middle-aged and elderly individuals from the Naxi ethnic group exhibited a stronger willingness to assist the elderly, while the Han counterparts showed a greater willingness to help the middle-aged. This suggests that, in the context of long-term ethnic integration, the Naxi ethnic group has developed a stronger respect for the elderly after being sinicized, while the Han ethnic group has retained some Hu characteristics, such as “Respecting the Young.” Furthermore, middle-aged and elderly individuals from both ethnic groups prioritized children in all situations, reflecting the Chinese cultural value of placing the utmost importance on descendants. In most cases, high school students from both ethnic groups favored children or fathers and contributed more money and time to them, indicating that the differences in personality orientation among ethnicities are gradually diminishing. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of nature exposure at work on employees’ self-leadership WANG Xuefei, LIU Yuxin, LUO Yang, ZHANG Rongrong 2025, 57 (12):  2259-2272.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.2259 Abstract ( 1518 )   HTML ( 82 )   PDF (1334KB) ( 1990 )   Peer Review Comments Nature exposure at work, which refers to employees’ direct or indirect contact with natural elements in the workplace, has received increasing attention in organizational psychology. Previous studies have primarily adopted a resource-restoration perspective, depicting employees as passive beneficiaries of natural environments which help replenish depleted cognitive or emotional resources. However, this view overlooks the individual’s proactivity and agency in deriving benefits from nature exposure. Drawing on integrative self-control theory, we propose that nature exposure at work influences employees’ self-leadership through self-control motivation. Furthermore, we propose that task segmentation moderates both the direct relationship between nature exposure and self-control motivation, and the indirect relationship between nature exposure and self-leadership through self-control motivation. We conducted two studies to test our hypotheses. In Study 1, we employed a 2 (nature exposure at work: present vs. absent) × 2 (task segmentation: high vs. low) between-subjects factorial design. A total of 199 full-time employees were recruited and randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions. Participants were first presented with scenarios depicting either high or low task segmentation. Subsequently, they viewed either nature-rich or neutral workplace images and were asked to imagine themselves working in these settings. They then reported their self-control motivation and demographics. Study 2 adopted a three-wave field design with one-week intervals, ultimately yielding a final sample of 380 working adults from diverse industries in China. At Time 1, participants completed measures of nature exposure at work and task segmentation. At Time 2, they completed scales assessing self-control motivation, vitality, and self-efficacy. At Time 3, participants reported self-leadership and demographics. The results of Study 1 revealed that nature exposure at work significantly enhanced self-control motivation, F (1, 195) = 17.86, p < 0.001, and this effect was significantly moderated by task segmentation, F (1, 195) = 5.30, p = 0.022. Specifically, nature exposure significantly increased self-control motivation under high task segmentation (M = 4.80 vs. 3.99, p < 0.001), but not under low segmentation (M = 4.18 vs. 3.94, p = 0.176). The results of Study 2 showed that nature exposure at work significantly predicted self-control motivation (b = 0.12, p = 0.0015), which in turn significantly predicted self-leadership (b = 0.12, p = 0.016). Mediation analysis confirmed the indirect effect of nature exposure on self-leadership via self-control motivation. Furthermore, task segmentation moderated both the effect of nature exposure on self-control motivation (b = 0.09, p < 0.001) and the indirect effect of nature exposure on self-leadership, which was significant only under high task segmentation (indirect effect = 0.03, 95% CI [0.003, 0.058]). This study offers several important theoretical and practical implications. First, we move beyond the previous resource-restoration framework by advocating a motivation-based perspective on nature exposure. This reconceptualization provides a more dynamic account of how nature exposure can activate and sustain motivational processes. Second, we highlight the role of individual agency and autonomy, proposing that employees—as active decision-makers—strategically harness and regulate the “energy replenishment” derived from nature, thereby transforming their role from passive beneficiaries to active managers. Third, our study pioneers the exploration of ecological antecedents of self-leadership, advancing research on self-leadership into emerging ecological contexts. Finally, the findings of this study offer valuable guidance for designing biophilic work environments and nature-based interventions aimed at fostering employees’ self-leadership in organizational settings. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics