基于手机APP的双维n-back训练的认知与情绪效益

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2018.01105

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

工作记忆训练的训练获益能够迁移至与工作记忆相关的各项基础认知活动中去。基于情绪认知控制与工作记忆之间的密切关联, 本研究设计了一种新型情绪性双维n-back训练, 并且验证利用手机APP搭载训练任务的适用性。结果表明：基于APP的短期双维n-back训练能够使个体在视空间工作记忆任务、活动记忆任务、数字转换任务、Stroop任务上的成绩产生相较控制组更大的进步, 表明训练可以提高个体工作记忆的容量和中央执行功能。然而, 基于不同情绪材料的训练(中性、负性、正性)在各类迁移上差异不大。短期训练无法迁移到情绪Stroop任务中, 即无法产生特异的情绪控制上的效益。双维n-back任务通道单一, 且搭载于手机APP, 拥有较为广阔的应用前景。但将情绪材料单纯地糅合进工作记忆任务中的价值与意义须被进一步考察。

关键词: 工作记忆训练, 双n-back, 迁移, 情绪工作记忆, 情绪工作记忆训练, 手机APP

Abstract:

Audiovisual dual channel n-back training offers the ability to transfer to basic cognitive processes that are closely related to the working memory process. However, dual-channel training based on a computer is highly demanding for a training environment. Thus, it is not conducive to its application promotion. Moreover, emotional working memory training is developed to enhance the emotional control ability of individuals. Only negative material working memory training has been examined. Thus, the general problems of emotional working memory training have not been clarified. A new type of emotional dual dimension n-back training based on smartphone applications was designed in this study. The general applicability and emotional effects of emotion (both positive and negative) and neutral working memory training were examined through the design of a randomized controlled group.

This study developed an app based on n-back task, which is a visual single-channel with two dimensions. A total of 66 healthy college students (34 males and 32 females) participated in the experiment and were randomly divided into control, negative training, neutral training, and positive training groups. All participants were trained with their smartphones. Participants in the training groups must remember the Chinese characters and the position of the Chinese characters in the 3*3 matrix and make two independent n-back tasks on the characters and the position. In the neutral, positive, and negative training groups, the valences of Chinese characters were neutral, positive, and negative, respectively. The participants in the control group completed the digital parity task in an interface similar to a training task. Before and after the training session, participants were asked to complete the visual-spatial working memory task, running memory task, Stroop task, digital shifting task, emotion Stroop task, and a profile of mood states.

Short-term dual-dimension n-back training can make more progress on the visual space work memory task, running memory task, digital shifting task, and classic Stroop task than placebo training. These tasks test the working memory capacity, as well as the update, shift, and inhibit the function, and fully characterize the working memory of the whole picture. However, training based on different emotional materials did not vary greatly across the various types of transfer effects. Short-term training cannot transfer into the emotional Stroop task, which is unable to produce specific emotional control benefits.

The dual-dimensional n-back training app can produce a favorable basic cognitive transfer. This indicates that the cognitive training app has a wide application prospect, and the dual-dimensional training paradigm is worthy of improved employment. For the invisible emotional benefits of the emotional version of n-back training manifested that simply incorporate emotional material into the work memory task must be examined carefully in the future.

Key words: working memory training, dual n-back, transfer, emotional working memory, emotional working memory training, APP

中图分类号:

B842

潘东旎, 王道湍, 李雪冰. (2018). 基于手机APP的双维n-back训练的认知与情绪效益. 心理学报, 50(10), 1105-1119.

PAN Dong-ni, WANG Daotuan, LI Xue-bing. (2018). Cognitive and emotional benefits of emotional dual dimension n-back training based on an APP. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 50(10), 1105-1119.

图/表 8

参考文献 73

[1]	Anderson P .( 2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8( 2), 71-82. doi: 10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724 URL pmid: 12638061
[2]	Ansari S .( 2015). The therapeutic potential of working memory training for treating mental disorders. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9(13), 481. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00481 URL pmid: 4558973
[3]	Arean P. A., Hallgren K. A., Jordan J. T., Gazzaley A., Atkins D. C., Heagerty P. J., & Anguera J. A . ( 2016). The use and effectiveness of mobile Apps for depression: Results from a fully remote clinical trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 18( 2), e330.
[4]	Au J., Sheehan E., Tsai N., Duncan G. J., Buschkuehl M., & Jaeggi S. M . ( 2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22( 2), 366-377. doi: 10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x URL
[5]	Baddeley A .( 2003). Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4( 10), 829-839. doi: 10.1038/nrn1201 URL
[6]	Bartolic E. I., Basso M. R., Schefft B. K., Glauser T., & Titanic-Schefft M . ( 1999). Effects of experimentally- induced emotional states on frontal lobe cognitive task performance. Neuropsychologia, 37( 6), 677-683. doi: 10.1016/S0028-3932(98)00123-7 URL pmid: 10390029
[7]	Clark C. M., Lawlor-Savage L., Goghari V. M . ( 2017). Functional brain activation associated with working memory training and transfer. Behavioural Brain Research, 334( 15), 34-49. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.07.030 URL pmid: 28750832
[8]	Cortese S., Ferrin M., Brandeis D., Buitelaar J. K., Daley D., Dittmann R. W., ... Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. .( 2015). Cognitive training for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Meta-analysis of clinical and neuropsychological outcomes from randomized controlled trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 54( 3), 164-174. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2014.12.010 URL
[9]	Dahlin E., Neely A. S., Larsson A., Bäckman L., & Nyberg L . ( 2008). Transfer of learning after updating training mediated by the striatum. Science, 320( 5882), 1510-1512. doi: 10.1126/science.1155466 URL pmid: 18556560
[10]	Erk S., Kleczar A., & Walter H . ( 2007). Valence-specific regulation effects in a working memory task with emotional context. Neuroimage, 37( 2), 623-632. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.05.006 URL pmid: 17570686
[11]	Esmaeili M. T., Karimi M., Tabatabaie K. R., Moradi A., & Farahini N . ( 2011). The effect of positive arousal on working memory. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30( 1), 1457-1460. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.282 URL
[12]	Etkin A, Büchel C, & Gross J . ( 2015). The neural bases of emotion regulation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16( 11), 693-700. doi: 10.1038/nrn4044 URL pmid: 26481098
[13]	Gao X., Zhou R. L., & Dong Y. Y . ( 2013) A research of the selective effects of positive emotion on verbal and spatial working memory. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21( 2), 175-179.
	[ 高鑫, 周仁来, 董云英 . ( 2013). 积极情绪对言语和空间工作记忆的选择性影响. 中国临床心理学杂志, 21( 2), 175-179.]
[14]	Jaeggi S. M., Buschkuehl M., Jonides J., & Perrig W. J . ( 2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105( 19), 6829-6833. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0801268105 URL
[15]	Jaeggi S. M., Buschkuehl M., Shah P., & Jonides J . ( 2014). The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Memory & Cognition, 42( 3), 464-480. doi: 10.3758/s13421-013-0364-z URL pmid: 24081919
[16]	Jaeggi S. M., Schmid C., Buschkuehl M., & Perrig W. J . ( 2009). Differential age effects in load-dependent memory processing. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn, 16( 1), 80-102. doi: 10.1080/13825580802233426 URL pmid: 18686052
[17]	Jaeggi S. M., Studer-Luethi B., Buschkuehl M., Su Y. F., Jonides J., & Perrig W. J . ( 2010). The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning— implications for training and transfer. Intelligence, 38( 6), 625-635. doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001 URL
[18]	Joormann J., Levens S. M., & Gotlib I. H . ( 2011). Sticky thoughts: depression and rumination are associated with difficulties manipulating emotional material in working memory. Psychological Science, 22( 8), 979-983. doi: 10.1177/0956797611415539 URL
[19]	Kim H. E., Hong Y. J., Kim M. K., Jung Y. H., Kyeong S., & Kim J. J . ( 2017). Effectiveness of self-training using the mobile-based virtual reality program in patients with social anxiety disorder. Computers in Human Behavior, 73, 614-619. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.017 URL
[20]	Kim N. Y., Wittenberg E., & Nam C. S . ( 2017). Behavioral and neural correlates of executive function: interplay between inhibition and updating processes. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 11, 378. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00378 URL
[21]	Klingberg T .( 2009). The overflowing brain: Information overload and the limits of working memory. Publishers Weekly, 22( 5), 415-415.
[22]	Klingberg T., Fernell E., Olesen P. J., Johnson M., Gustafsson P., Dahlström K., .. Westerberg H . ( 2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD--A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 177-186.
[23]	Koch I .( 2005). Sequential task predictability in task switching. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12( 1), 107-112. doi: 10.3758/BF03196354 URL pmid: 15945203
[24]	Lavric A., Rippon G., & Gray J. R . ( 2003). Threat-evoked anxiety disrupts spatial working memory performance: an attentional account. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27( 5), 489-504. doi: 10.1023/A:1026300619569 URL
[25]	Lilienthal L., Tamez E., Shelton J. T., Myerson J., & Hale S . ( 2013). Dual n-back training increases the capacity of the focus of attention. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20( 1), 135-141. doi: 10.3758/s13423-012-0335-6 URL pmid: 23184506
[26]	Liu C.L., &Zhou R.L . ( 2012). Effects of working memory training on cognition and brain plasticity. Advances in Psychological Science, 20( 7), 1003-1011.
	[ 刘春雷, 周仁来 . ( 2012). 工作记忆训练对认知功能和大脑神经系统的影响. 心理科学进展, 20( 7), 1003-1011.]
[27]	Liu X. P., Wang Z. X., Chen X. C., & Zhang D. R . ( 2003). Subsystems in visual working memory. Acta Psychologiac Sinica, 35, 598-603.
	[ 刘晓平, 王兆新, 陈湘川, 张达人 . ( 2003). 视觉工作记忆中的子系统. 心理学报, 35( 5), 598-603.]
[28]	MacLeod C., Rutherford E., Campbell L., Ebsworthy G., & Holker L . ( 2002). Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111( 1), 107-123. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.1.107 URL
[29]	Magnussen S., Greenlee M. W., & Thomas J. P . ( 1996). Parallel processing in visual short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 22( 1), 202-212. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.22.1.202 URL pmid: 8742262
[30]	Melby-Lervåg S., &Hulme C . ( 2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Dev Psychol, 49( 2), 270-291. doi: 10.1037/a0028228 URL
[31]	Melby- Lervåg M., Redick T. S., & Hulme C . ( 2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspect Psychol Sci, 11( 4), 512-534. doi: 10.1177/1745691616635612 URL
[32]	Mistler L. A., Ben-Zeev D., Carpenter-Song E., Brunette M. F., & Friedman M. J . ( 2017). Mobile mindfulness intervention on an acute psychiatric unit: Feasibility and acceptability study. JMIR Mental Health, 4( 3), e34.
[33]	Morris N., &Jones D.M . ( 1990). Memory updating in working memory: The role of the central executive. British Journal of Psychology, 81( 2), 111-121. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02349.x URL
[34]	Oh H., Park J., & Seo W . ( 2017). Development of an evidence-based intervention program for patients with mild cognitive impairment after stroke: A home-based, online cognitive rehabilitation program. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation, 33( 2), 140-151. doi: 10.1097/TGR.0000000000000149 URL
[35]	Onraedt T., & Koster E.H . ( 2014). Training working memory to reduce rumination. PLoS One, 9( 3), e90632. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090632 URL pmid: 3940909
[36]	Ostaszewski P., Green L., & Myerson J . ( 1998). Effects of inflation on the subjective value of delayed and probabilistic rewards. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5( 2), 324-333.l doi: 10.3758/BF03212959 URL
[37]	Pan D.N., Li X.B .( 2017). Working memory training in mental disorders. Advances in Psychological Science, 25( 9), 1527-1543.
	[ 潘东旎, 李雪冰 . ( 2017). 工作记忆训练在精神疾病中的应用. 心理科学进展, 25( 9), 1527-1543.] doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2017.01527 URL
[38]	Pedullà L., Brichetto G., Tacchino A., Vassallo C., Zaratin P., Battaglia M. A., .. Bove M . ( 2016). Adaptive vs.non-adaptive cognitive training by means of a personalized App: a randomized trial in people with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation, 13( 1), 88.
[39]	Qi B., Bai X. J., & Sheng D. L . ( 2017). Stimuli and predictatility in task switching. Psychological Science,30( 1), 41-44.
	[ 齐冰, 白学军, 沈德立 . ( 2007). 材料类型和任务可预测性在任务转换中的作用. 心理科学, 30( 1), 41-44.]
[40]	Redick T. S., Shipstead Z., Harrison T. L., Hicks K. L., Fried D. E., … Engle R. W . ( 2013). No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 142( 2), 359-379. doi: 10.1037/a0029082 URL
[41]	Román F. J., García-Rubio M. J., Privado J., Kessel D., López-Martín S., Martínez K., .. Roberto C . ( 2015). Adaptive working memory training reveals a negligible effect of emotional stimuli over cognitive processing. Personality & Individual Differences, 74, 165-170.
[42]	Roy M. J., Costanzo M. E., Highland K. B., Olsen C., Clayborne D., & Law W . ( 2017). An App a day keeps the doctor away: Guided education and training via smartphones in subthreshold post traumatic stress disorder. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 20( 8), 470-478. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2017.0221 URL
[43]	Salminen T., Kühn S., Frensch P. A., & Schubert T . ( 2016). Transfer after dual n-back training depends on striatal activation change. Journal of Neuroscience, 36( 39), 10198-10213. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2305-15.2016 URL
[44]	Sari B. A., Koster E. H. W., Pourtois G., & Derakshan N . ( 2016). Training working memory to improve attentional control in anxiety: A proof-of-principle study using behavioral and electrophysiological measures. Biological Psychology, 121, 203-212. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.09.008 URL
[45]	Schlosser D., Campellone T., Kim D., Truong B., Vergani S., Ward C., & Vinogradov S . ( 2016). Feasibility of PRIME: A cognitive neuroscience-informed mobile App intervention to enhance motivated behavior and improve quality of life in recent onset schizophrenia. JMIR Res Protoc, 5( 2), e77.
[46]	Schmiedek F., L#x000f6;vdén M., & Lindenberger U . ( 2014). A task is a task is a task: putting complex span, n-back, and other working memory indicators in psychometric context. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1475.
[47]	Schwaighofer M., Fischer F., & Bühner M . ( 2015). Does working memory training transfer? A meta-analysis including training conditions as moderators. Educational Psychologist, 50( 2), 138-166. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2015.1036274 URL
[48]	Schweizer S., Grahn J., Hampshire A., Mobbs D., & Dalgleish T . ( 2013). Training the emotional brain: improving affective control through emotional working memory training. Journal of Neuroscience, 33( 12), 5301-5311. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2593-12.2013 URL
[49]	Schweizer S., Hampshire A., & Dalgleish T . ( 2011). Extending brain-training to the affective domain: Increasing cognitive and affective executive control through emotional working memory training. PLoS One, 6( 9), e24372.
[50]	Senn T. E., Espy K. A., & Kaufmann P. M . ( 2004). Using path analysis to understand executive function organization in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology,26( 1), 445-464. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2601_5 URL pmid: 15276904
[51]	Shackman A. J., Sarinopoulos I., Maxwell J. S., Pizzagalli D. A., Lavric A., & Davidson R. J . ( 2006). Anxiety selectively disrupts visuospatial working memory. Emotion,6( 1), 40-61. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.6.1.40 URL pmid: 16637749
[52]	Shi Z .( 2016). Working memory updating and training in test anxiety. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
	[ 史战 . ( 2016). 考试焦虑者工作记忆刷新功能的特征及矫治训练. (博士论文). 东南大学, 南京.]
[53]	Shipstead Z., Redick T. S., & Engle R. W . ( 2010). Does working memory training generalize? Psychologica Belgica, 50(3-4), 245-276. doi: 10.5334/pb-50-3-4-245 URL
[54]	Shipstead Z, Redick T. S, & Engle R. W . ( 2012). Is working memory training effective?. Psychological Bulletin, 138( 4), 628. doi: 10.1037/a0027473 URL pmid: 22409508
[55]	Smyth M.M., &Scholey K.A . ( 1994). Interference in immediate spatial memory. Memory & Cognition, 22( 1), 1-13. doi: 10.3758/BF03202756 URL pmid: 8035679
[56]	Song H.K .( 2011). The evolution and application of N-back paradigm. Journal of Southwest University (Social Sciences Edition)( s1), 81-82.
	[ 宋宏珂 . ( 2011). N-back范式的演变与应用. 西南大学学报(社会科学版) ( s1), 81-82.]
[57]	Soveri A., Antfolk J., Karlsson L., Salo B., & Laine M . ( 2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24( 4), 1077-1096. doi: 10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0 URL pmid: 28116702
[58]	Soveri A., Karlsson E. P. A., Waris O., Gronholm-Nyman P., & Laine M . ( 2017). Pattern of near transfer effects following working memory training with a dual n-back task. Experimental Psychology, 64( 4), 240-252. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000370 URL
[59]	Stroop J.R . ( 1992). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 121( 1), 15-23. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.121.1.15 URL
[60]	Szmalec A., Verbruggen F., Vandierendonck A., & Kemps E . ( 2011). Control of interference during working memory updating. Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance, 37( 1), 137-151.
[61]	Takeuchi H., Taki Y., Rui N., Hashizume H., Sekiguchi A., Kotozaki Y., .. Kawashima R . ( 2013). Working memory training improves emotional states of healthy individuals. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 200. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00200 URL pmid: 4199268
[62]	von Bastian, C. C., &Eschen A . ( 2016). Does working memory training have to be adaptive?. Psychological Research, 80( 2), 181-194. doi: 10.1007/s00426-015-0655-z URL pmid: 25716189
[63]	von Bastian, C. C., &Oberauer K .( 2014). Effects and mechanisms of working memory training: A review. Psychological Research, 78( 6), 803-820. doi: 10.1007/s00426-013-0524-6 URL pmid: 24213250
[64]	de Voogd E. L., Wiers R. W., Zwitser R. J., & Salemink E . ( 2016). Emotional working memory training as an online intervention for adolescent anxiety and depression: A randomised controlled trial. Australian Journal of Psychology, 68( 3), 228-238. doi: 10.1111/ajpy.12134 URL
[65]	Waddell J., &Mooney S.M . ( 2017). Choline and working memory training improve cognitive deficits caused by prenatal exposure to ethanol. Nutrients, 9( 10), 1080.
[66]	Wang Y. N., Zhou L. M., & Luo Y. J . ( 2008). The pilot establishment and evaluation of Chinese affective words system. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22( 8), 608-612.
	[ 王一牛, 周立明, 罗跃嘉 . ( 2008). 汉语情感词系统的初步编制及评定. 中国心理卫生杂志, 22( 8), 608-612.]
[67]	Wanmaker S., Geraerts E., &Franken I. H. A .( 2015). A working memory training to decrease rumination in depressed and anxious Individuals: A double-blind randomized controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders, 175, 310-319. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.12.027 URL
[68]	Weicker J., Villringer A., & Thone-Otto A . ( 2016). Can impaired working memory functioning be improved by training? A Meta-Analysis with a special focus on brain injured patients. Neuropsychology, 30( 2), 190-212. doi: 10.1037/neu0000227 URL
[69]	Williams J. M. G., Mathews A., & Macleod C . ( 1996). The emotional stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120( 1), 3-24. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.120.1.3 URL pmid: 8711015
[70]	Xiu L., Zhou R., & Jiang Y . ( 2016). Working memory training improves emotion regulation ability: Evidence from HRV. Physiology & Behavior, 155, 25-29. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.12.004 URL pmid: 26679738
[71]	Zhao X., &Zhou R.L .( 2011) Sub-function evaluation method of central executive system in working memory. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 19( 6), 748-752.
	[ 赵鑫, 周仁来 . ( 2011). 工作记忆中央执行系统不同子功能评估方法. 中国临床心理学杂志, 19( 6), 748-752.]
[72]	Zhong Y. P., Sun Y. A., & Zhang J . ( 2007). The emotional stroop effect: Evidence from Chinese characters. Psychological Science, 30( 4), 778-781.
	[ 钟毅平, 孙羽中, 张杰 . ( 2007). 情绪Stroop效应:来自汉字的证据. 心理科学, 30( 4), 778-781.]
[73]	Zhu B.L . ( 1995). Brief introduction of POMS scale and its model for China. Journal of Tianjin Institute of Physical Education, 10( 1), 35-37.
	[ 祝蓓里 . ( 1995). POMS量表及简式中国常模简介. 天津体育学院学报, 10( 1), 35-37]

成绩	控制组(N = 17)	负性训练组(N = 17)	中性训练组(N = 16)	正性训练组(N = 16)
前测成绩	5.41 (0.99)	5.65 (0.98)	5.19 (0.87)	5.29 (1.47)
后测成绩	5.71 (1.21)	6.44 (1.03)	6.53 (0.90)	6.06 (1.29)
训练效果量	0.29 (1.13)	0.79 (1.28)	1.34 (0.83)	0.78 (0.75)

成绩	控制组(N = 17)	负性训练组(N = 17)	中性训练组(N = 16)	正性训练组(N = 16)
前测成绩	5.41 (0.99)	5.65 (0.98)	5.19 (0.87)	5.29 (1.47)
后测成绩	5.71 (1.21)	6.44 (1.03)	6.53 (0.90)	6.06 (1.29)
训练效果量	0.29 (1.13)	0.79 (1.28)	1.34 (0.83)	0.78 (0.75)

成绩	控制组(N = 17)	负性训练组(N = 17)	中性训练组(N = 16)	正性训练组(N = 16)
前测成绩	0.96 (0.09)	0.94 (0.06)	0.96 (0.06)	0.95 (0.06)
后测成绩	0.96 (0.06)	0.96 (0.04)	0.98 (0.03)	0.99 (0.02)
训练效果量	0 (0.12)	0.02 (0.05)	0.02 (0.04)	0.04 (0.05)

成绩	控制组(N = 17)	负性训练组(N = 17)	中性训练组(N = 16)	正性训练组(N = 16)
前测成绩	0.96 (0.09)	0.94 (0.06)	0.96 (0.06)	0.95 (0.06)
后测成绩	0.96 (0.06)	0.96 (0.04)	0.98 (0.03)	0.99 (0.02)
训练效果量	0 (0.12)	0.02 (0.05)	0.02 (0.04)	0.04 (0.05)

成绩	控制组(N = 17)	负性训练组(N = 17)	中性训练组(N = 16)	正性训练组(N = 16)
前测成绩	517 (118)	494 (144)	422 (154)	521 (116)
后测成绩	501 (167)	427 (174)	386 (135)	419 (83)
训练效果量	15 (171)	67 (84)	46 (121)	102 (132)