情绪效价和反应指向对幼儿助人行为的影响: 来自行为和fNIRS的证据

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1143

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

本研究通过3个实验探究情绪效价和情绪反应指向对幼儿助人行为的影响及其神经机制。实验1 (N = 259, M = 5.48岁, SD = 0.76岁, 127名男孩)探究了情绪效价(积极、中性、消极)对4~6岁幼儿助人行为的影响, 结果发现, 相比其他情绪, 积极情绪更能促进4~6岁幼儿的助人行为。实验2 (N = 180, M = 5.39岁, SD = 0.79岁, 98名男孩)进一步考察了情绪效价(积极 vs. 消极)和情绪反应指向(指向自我 vs. 指向他人)的交互作用, 结果发现, “指向他人”的消极情绪比“指向自我”的消极情绪更能促进4~6岁幼儿助人行为; 实验3 (N = 34, M = 5.38岁, SD = 0.33岁, 17名男孩)采用功能性近红外光谱技术(fNIRS)探究了在“指向自我”条件下情绪效价对5岁幼儿助人行为影响的神经机制, 结果发现, 在“指向自我”的消极情绪下幼儿助人伴随着更高的背外侧前额叶皮层(DLPFC)激活水平; 而在“指向自我”积极情绪下幼儿助人伴随着更高的颞中回(MTG)激活水平。这些发现表明, 4~6岁幼儿助人行为不仅受情绪效价的影响, 而且还会受到情绪反应指向的调节; 在“指向自我”的消极情绪下5岁幼儿的助人行为可能主要通过认知控制路径实现, 而在“指向自我”的积极情绪下5岁幼儿的助人行为可能主要通过共情−利他路径实现。

关键词: 幼儿助人行为, 情绪效价, 情绪反应指向, 功能性近红外光谱, 背外侧前额叶皮层, 颞中回

Abstract:

Helping behavior, a typical form of prosocial behavior, refers to voluntary actions in which individuals attend to and assist others in escaping from undesirable situations. Early childhood represents a critical period for the frequent occurrence of helping behaviors in young children. Although various factors influence children’s helping behaviors, emotion may serve as a key factor. Individual emotional experiences encompass not only the emotional valence dimension (positive vs. negative) but also the emotional response orientation dimension (self oriented vs. other-oriented). However, little is known about how emotional valence and emotional response orientation jointly influence helping behaviors and the underlying neural mechanisms in young children. Therefore, this study systematically investigated these questions through three experiments.

In Experiment 1 (N = 259, M = 5.48 years, SD = 0.76 years, 127 boys), 4- to 6-year-old participants were randomly assigned to positive, neutral, or negative emotion conditions. We used the gift paradigm to induce corresponding emotions and then examined helping behaviors using a spilled-pencils task. Building on Experiment 1, Experiment 2 (N = 180, M = 5.39 years, SD = 0.79 years, 98 boys) randomly assigned 4- to 6-year-old participants to positive or negative emotion groups, with emotional induction under two emotional response orientation conditions (self-oriented vs. other-oriented). Participants then completed the spilled-pencils task. Building on Experiment 2, Experiment 3 (N = 34, M = 5.38 years, SD = 0.33 years, 17 boys) focused on the neural mechanisms underlying the effect of emotional valence on 5-year-old children’s helping behaviors under self-oriented conditions. Five-year-old participants were randomly assigned to self-oriented positive or self-oriented negative emotion groups. After emotion induction using the gift paradigm, helping behaviors were examined in the hill paradigm involving puppet characters displayed on screen, while functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to record brain activation throughout the process.

Experiment 1 revealed that compared to negative and neutral emotions, positive emotions significantly promoted helping behaviors in young children aged 4 to 6 years. Experiment 2 found that other-oriented negative emotions elicited more helping behaviors than self-oriented negative emotions, whereas no significant difference was observed between self-oriented and other-oriented positive emotions. Experiment 3’s fNIRS data revealed differentiated neural activation patterns underlying helping behaviors under self-oriented emotional conditions in 5-year-old children. Under self-oriented negative emotions, children’s helping behaviors were accompanied by higher activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), whereas under self-oriented positive emotions, helping behaviors were accompanied by higher activation in the middle temporal gyrus (MTG).

These findings indicate that helping behaviors are influenced not only by emotional valence but also moderated by emotional response orientation. Under self-oriented negative emotions, 5-year-old children’s helping behaviors may primarily rely on a cognitive control pathway, whereas under self-oriented positive emotions, helping behaviors may primarily rely on an empathy-altruism pathway. These findings have important implications for understanding the development of prosocial behavior in early childhood.

Key words: helping behaviors in young children, emotional valence, emotional response orientation, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), middle temporal gyrus (MTG)

中图分类号:

B844

张文洁, 龙如意, 李苗青, 范伟, 傅小兰. (2026). 情绪效价和反应指向对幼儿助人行为的影响: 来自行为和fNIRS的证据. 心理学报, 58(6), 1143-1159.

ZHANG Wenjie, LONG Ruyi, LI Miaoqing, FAN Wei, FU Xiaolan. (2026). The impact of emotional valence and response orientation on helping behavior in young children: Evidence from behavior and fNIRS. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 58(6), 1143-1159.

图/表 8

图1 实验1流程图

图2 “捡笔范式”助人任务的数据编码

图3 情绪效价对幼儿助人分数的影响注: 误差线为标准误差。积极情绪组(n = 85)、中性情绪组(n = 91)、消极情绪组(n = 83)。

图4 实验2流程图

图5 情绪效价和情绪反应指向对幼儿助人得分的影响注: 误差线为标准误差。积极−指向自我组(n = 92), 积极−指向他人组(n = 92), 消极−指向自我组(n = 88), 消极−指向他人组(n = 88)。

图6 实验3近红外正式阶段流程图

图7 启动积极情绪和消极情绪的幼儿脑激活差异图注: 通道37为前运动区和运动辅助皮层

图8 不同情绪下助人决策的幼儿脑激活差异图注: 通道6为背外侧前额叶皮层；通道15为颞中回

参考文献 76

[1]	Aknin, L. B., Hamlin, J. K., & Dunn, E. W. (2012). Giving leads to happiness in young children. Plos One, 7(6), e39211.
[2]	Barnett, M. A., Howard, J. A., Melton, E. M., & Dino, G. A. (1982). Effect of inducing sadness about self or other on helping behavior in high-and low-empathic children. Child Development, 53(4), 920-923. doi: 10.2307/1129128 URL
[3]	Bar-Tal, D., Raviv, A., & Goldberg, M. (1982). Helping behavior among preschool children: An observational study. Child Development, 53(2), 396-402. doi: 10.2307/1128982 URL
[4]	Bellucci, G., Camilleri, J. A., Iyengar, V., Eickhoff, S. B., & Krueger, F. (2020). Neural signatures of prosocial behaviors. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 118, 186-195. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.006 URL
[5]	Bishop, S., Duncan, J., Brett, M., & Lawrence, A. D. (2004). Prefrontal cortical function and anxiety: Controlling attention to threat-related stimuli. Nature Neuroscience, 7(2), 184-188. doi: 10.1038/nn1173 pmid: 14703573
[6]	Brigadoi, S., Ceccherini, L., Cutini, S., Scarpa, F., Scatturin, P., Selb, J., … Cooper, R. J. (2014). Motion artifacts in functional near-infrared spectroscopy: A comparison of motion correction techniques applied to real cognitive data. Neuroimage, 85(1), 181-191. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.082 URL
[7]	Buhle, J. T., Silvers, J. A., Wager, T. D., Lopez, R., Onyemekwu, C., Kober, H., Weber, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2014). Cognitive reappraisal of emotion: A meta-analysis of human neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex, 24(11), 2981-2990. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bht154 URL
[8]	Carver, L. J., & Vaccaro, B. G. (2007). 12-month-old infants allocate increased neural resources to stimuli associated with negative adult emotion. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 54-69. pmid: 17201508
[9]	Caspers, S., Zilles, K., Laird, A. R., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2010). ALE meta-analysis of action observation and imitation in the human brain. Neuroimage, 50(3), 1148-1167. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.112 pmid: 20056149
[10]	Cha, M., & Song, H. J. (2024). Focusing attention on others’ negative emotions reduces the effect of social relationships on children’s distributive behaviors. Plos One, 19(2), e0295642.
[11]	Chen, Y. Q., Han, S., & Yin, B. (2023). Why help others? Insights from rodent to human early childhood research. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 17, 1058352.
[12]	Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2018). The social neuroscience of empathy and its relationship to moral behavior. In A. R. Beech, A. J. Carter, R. E. Mann, & P. Rotshtein (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of forensic neuroscience (pp. 145-169). Wiley Blackwell.
[13]	De Waal, F. B. (2008). Putting the altruism back into altruism: The evolution of empathy. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 279-300. doi: 10.1146/psych.2008.59.issue-1 URL
[14]	Deng, H. Q. (2018). The effect of sadness and anger on pro-social decision making: The role of the interpersonal attribution of responsibility [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Sichuan Normal University, China.
	[邓华强. (2018). 悲伤与愤怒情绪诱发对助人决策的影响: 人际责任归因的作用 (硕士学位论文). 四川师范大学, 成都.]
[15]	Deng, L., Luo, P. C., Wang, J. F., Fang, J. C., Zheng, X. C., Li, Y., & Zheng, X. F. (2014). The enhancement of self- orientation on counterempathy. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 46(8), 1103-1111. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2014.01103 URL
	[邓琳, 罗品超, 王俊芳, 方俊聪, 郑晓纯, 李悦, 郑希付. (2014). 不对称情绪分享过程中情绪反应自我指向增强效应的初探. 心理学报, 46(8), 1103-1111.]
[16]	Donohue, M. R., & Tully, E. C. (2019). Reparative prosocial behaviors alleviate children’s guilt. Developmental Psychology, 55(10), 2102-2113. doi: 10.1037/dev0000788 pmid: 31343231
[17]	Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 665-697. doi: 10.1146/psych.2000.51.issue-1 URL
[18]	Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 6(3-4), 169-200.
[19]	Fehlbaum, L. V., Borbás, R., Paul, K., Eickhoff, S. B., & Raschle, N. M. (2022). Early and late neural correlates of mentalizing: ALE meta-analyses in adults, children and adolescents. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 17(4), 351-366. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsab105 URL
[20]	Feng, L. L., Zhong, H., & Zhang, L. L. (2021). Influence of emotional response on state empathy and helping behavior during emotion induction. China Journal of Health Psychology, 29(7), 1085-1091.
	[冯琳琳, 钟浩, 张乐琳. (2021). 大学生诱发情绪时情绪反应对状态共情与助人行为的影响. 中国健康心理学杂志, 29(7), 1085-1091.]
[21]	Forgas, J. P., Dunn, E., & Granland, S. (2008). Are you being served…? An unobtrusive experiment of affective influences on helping in a department store. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(2), 333-342. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.v38:2 URL
[22]	Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 300-319. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300 pmid: 21850154
[23]	Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 pmid: 11315248
[24]	Gori, M., Schiatti, L., & Amadeo, M. B. (2021). Masking emotions: Face masks impair how we read emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 669432. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669432 URL
[25]	Grabell, A. S., Huppert, T. J., Fishburn, F. A., Li, Y., Hlutkowsky, C. O., Jones, H. M., Wakschlag, L. S., & Perlman, S. B. (2019). Neural correlates of early deliberate emotion regulation: Young children’s responses to interpersonal scaffolding. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 40, 100708. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100708 URL
[26]	Gross, J., Emmerling, F., Vostroknutov, A., & Sack, A. T. (2018). Manipulation of pro-sociality and rule-following with non-invasive brain stimulation. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1827.
[27]	Guo, X. Y., & Wang, Z. H. (2007). Concept, function and meaning of positive emotion. Advances in Psychological Science, 15(5), 810-815.
	[郭小艳, 王振宏. (2007). 积极情绪的概念、功能与意义. 心理科学进展, 15(5), 810-815.]
[28]	Huang, R., Liu, X. Q., & Xue, Y. Z. (2023). An experimental study of pro-social behavior among college students in different emotional validity contexts: Evidence based on the Vibraimage Test. Psychologies Magazine, 18(6), 72-75.
	[黄睿, 刘潇荃, 薛云珍. (2023). 不同效价的情绪状态与情境类型对大学生亲社会行为的影响: 基于振动影像测试的实验研究. 心理月刊, 18(6), 72-75.] doi: 10.19738/j.cnki.psy.2023.06.021
[29]	Isen, A. M., & Levin, P. F. (1972). Effect of feeling good on helping: Cookies and kindness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21(3), 384-388. doi: 10.1037/h0032317 pmid: 5060754
[30]	Kang, D., Wen, M., & Cai, S. (2023). Relationship between sharing behavior and emotional state in 4-6-year-old children. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 37(4), 326-331.
	[康丹, 文敏, 蔡术. (2023). 4-6岁幼儿分享行为与情绪状态的关系. 中国心理卫生杂志, 37(4), 326-331.]
[31]	Knoch, D., Pascual-Leone, A., Meyer, K., Treyer, V., & Fehr, E. (2006). Diminishing reciprocal fairness by disrupting the right prefrontal cortex. Science, 314(5800), 829-832. doi: 10.1126/science.1129156 pmid: 17023614
[32]	Lamy, L., Fischer-Lokou, J., & Guéguen, N. (2012). Priming emotion concepts and helping behavior: How unlived emotions can influence action. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 40(1), 55-62. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2012.40.1.55 URL
[33]	Lee, Y. E., Yun, J. E. E., Kim, E. Y., & Song, H. J. (2015). The development of infants’ sensitivity to behavioral intentions when inferring others’ social preferences. Plos One, 10(9), e0135588.
[34]	Longard, J. (2018). Relations between positive affect and sharing behaviour in early childhood [Unpublished doctorial dissertation]. Dalhousie University Halifax.
[35]	Luo, J. (2018). The neural basis of and a common neural circuitry in different types of pro-social behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 859. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00859 pmid: 29922197
[36]	MacGowan, T. L., & Schmidt, L. A. (2021). Helping as prosocial practice: Longitudinal relations among children’s shyness, helping behavior, and empathic response. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 209, 105154. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105154 URL
[37]	Misgav, K., Shachnai, R., Abramson, L., Knafo‐Noam, A., & Daniel, E. (2023). Personal values and sustained attention as predictors of children’s helping behavior in middle childhood. Journal of Personality, 91(3), 773-788. doi: 10.1111/jopy.v91.3 URL
[38]	Moore, B. S., Underwood, B., & Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). Affect and altruism. Developmental Psychology, 8(1), 99-104. doi: 10.1037/h0033847 URL
[39]	Noble, W. S. (2009). How does multiple testing correction work? Nature Biotechnology, 27(12), 1135-1137. doi: 10.1038/nbt1209-1135 pmid: 20010596
[40]	Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(5), 242-249. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010 pmid: 15866151
[41]	Passarotti, A. M., Sweeney, J. A., & Pavuluri, M. N. (2010). Differential engagement of cognitive and affective neural systems in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(1), 106-117. doi: 10.1017/S1355617709991019 URL
[42]	Petkova, A. V., & Brownell, C. A. (2022). I feel, you feel, we feel: The role of emotion in early prosocial behavior. Oxford University Press.
[43]	Phan, K. L., Wager, T., Taylor, S. F., & Liberzon, I. (2002). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. Neuroimage, 16(2), 331-348. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2002.1087 pmid: 12030820
[44]	Pinti, P., Scholkmann, F., Hamilton, A., Burgess, P., & Tachtsidis, I. (2019). Current status and issues regarding pre-processing of fNIRS neuroimaging data: An investigation of diverse signal filtering methods within a general linear model framework. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 505. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00505 URL
[45]	Pinti, P., Tachtsidis, I., Hamilton, A., Hirsch, J., Aichelburg, C., Gilbert, S., & Burgess, P. W. (2020). The present and future use of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for cognitive neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1464(1), 5-29.
[46]	Piretti, L., Pappaianni, E., Gobbo, S., Rumiati, R. I., Job, R., & Grecucci, A. (2022). Dissociating the role of dACC and dlPFC for emotion appraisal and mood regulation using cathodal tDCS. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 22(2), 304-315.
[47]	Rosenhan, D. L., Salovey, P., & Hargis, K. (1981). The joys of helping: Focus of attention mediates the impact of positive affect on altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(5), 899-905. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.40.5.899 URL
[48]	Sallquist, J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., & Gaertner, B. M. (2009). Assessment of preschoolers’ positive empathy: Concurrent and longitudinal relations with positive emotion, social competence, and sympathy. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(3), 223-233. doi: 10.1080/17439760902819444 URL
[49]	Schurz, M., Radua, J., Aichhorn, M., Richlan, F., & Perner, J. (2014). Fractionating theory of mind: A meta-analysis of functional brain imaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 42, 9-34. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.01.009 URL
[50]	Siegler, R. S. (2005). Children’s learning. American Psychologist, 60(8), 769-778. pmid: 16351402
[51]	Siu, T. S. C., & Ho, C. I. (2022). Engaging with happy- sounding music promotes helping behavior in 18-month-olds. Infancy, 27(1), 197-206. doi: 10.1111/infa.v27.1 URL
[52]	Snippe, E., Jeronimus, B. F., Aan Het Rot, M., Bos, E. H., de Jonge, P., & Wichers, M. (2018). The reciprocity of prosocial behavior and positive affect in daily life. Journal of Personality, 86(2), 139-146. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12299 pmid: 28093772
[53]	Steinbeis, N. (2018). Neurocognitive mechanisms of prosociality in childhood. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 30-34. doi: S2352-250X(17)30158-6 pmid: 28830003
[54]	Strang, S., Gross, J., Schuhmann, T., Riedl, A., Weber, B., & Sack, A. T. (2015). Be nice if you have to—the neurobiological roots of strategic fairness. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(6), 790-796. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsu114 URL
[55]	Svetlova, M., Nichols, S. R., & Brownell, C. A. (2010). Toddlers’ prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping. Child Development, 81(6), 1814-1827. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x URL
[56]	Telzer, E. H., Masten, C. L., Berkman, E. T., Lieberman, M. D., & Fuligni, A. J. (2011). Neural regions associated with self control and mentalizing are recruited during prosocial behaviors towards the family. Neuroimage, 58(1), 242-249. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.013 pmid: 21703352
[57]	Thiede, N., Stengelin, R., Seibold, A., & Haun, D. B. M. (2023). Testing causal effects of empathy on children’s prosociality in politeness dilemmas - an intervention study. Open Mind: Discoveries in Cognitive Science, 20(7), 691-710.
[58]	Thompson, R. A., & Newton, E. K. (2013). Baby altruists? Examining the complexity of prosocial motivation in young children. Infancy, 18(1), 120-133. doi: 10.1111/infa.2012.18.issue-1 URL
[59]	Thompson, W. C., Cowan, C. L., & Rosenhan, D. L. (1980). Focus of attention mediates the impact of negative affect on altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 291-300. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.291 URL
[60]	Underwood, B., Froming, W. J., & Moore, B. S. (1977). Mood, attention, and altruism: A search for mediating variables. Developmental Psychology, 13(5), 541-542. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.13.5.541 URL
[61]	Van der Meulen, M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Crone, E. A. (2016). Neural correlates of prosocial behavior: Compensating social exclusion in a four-player cyberball game. Plos One, 11(7), e0159045.
[62]	Van Kleef, G. A., & Lelieveld, G. J. (2022). Moving the self and others to do good: The emotional underpinnings of prosocial behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 80-88. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.029 URL
[63]	Wang, J., Yang, Z., Klugah-Brown, B., Zhang, T., Yang, J., Yuan, J., & Biswal, B. B. (2024). The critical mediating roles of the middle temporal gyrus and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex in the dynamic processing of interpersonal emotion regulation. Neuroimage, 300, 120789. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120789 URL
[64]	Ward, R., & Ramsey, R. (2024). Integrating social cognition into domain‐general control: Interactive activation and competition for the control of action (ICON). Cognitive Science, 48(2), e13415.
[65]	Warneken, F. (2015). Precocious prosociality: Why do young children help? Child Development Perspectives, 9(1), 1-6. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12101 URL
[66]	Widen, S. C. (2013). Children’s interpretation of facial expressions: The long path from valence-based to specific discrete categories. Emotion Review, 5(1), 72-77. doi: 10.1177/1754073912451492 URL
[67]	Yamamoto, E., Hirokawa, M., Nunez, E., Hakuno, Y., Sekine, K., Miyahara, S., Suzuki, K., & Minagawa, Y. (2024). Neural and physiological correlates of prosocial behavior: Temporoparietal junction activity in 3-year-old Children. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 36(9), 1977-1994. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_02199 URL
[68]	Yang, Z. N., Gu, Z. B., Wang, D. J., Tan, X. Y., & Wang, X. M. (2017). The effect of anger and sadness on prosocial decision making: The role of the interpersonal attribution of responsibility. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 49(3), 393-403. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2017.00393
	[杨昭宁, 顾子贝, 王杜娟, 谭旭运, 王晓明. (2017). 愤怒和悲伤情绪对助人决策的影响: 人际责任归因的作用. 心理学报, 49(3), 393-403.]
[69]	Yao, X. J. (2015). A study of 3-6 years old children helping behavior in kindergarten [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Central China Normal University, Wu Han.
	[姚秀娟. (2015). 3-6岁幼儿在园助人行为研究 (硕士学位论文). 华中师范大学, 武汉.]
[70]	Yeung, M. K. (2021). An optical window into brain function in children and adolescents: A systematic review of functional near-infrared spectroscopy studies. Neuroimage, 227, 117672. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117672 URL
[71]	Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 126-136. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.28.1.126 URL
[72]	Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child Development Perspectives, 6(4), 354-360. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00246.x URL
[73]	Zeng, M. C., Li, M. X., Li, W. J., & Sun, X. H. (2022). Application of fNIRS hyperscanning in the study of brain mechanism of parent-child Interaction. Journal of Shaanxi Xueqian Normal University, 38(12), 59-67.
	[曾梦淳, 李梦霞, 李文杰, 孙晓辉. (2022). fNIRS超扫描在亲子互动脑机制研究中的应用. 陕西学前师范学院学报, 38(12), 59-67.]
[74]	Zhong, Y. P., Yang. Z. L., & Fan, W. (2015). The effects of self-other overlap and perspective taking categories on willingness for help. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 63-66.
	[钟毅平, 杨子鹿, 范伟. (2015). 自我—他人重叠及观点采择类型对助人意愿的影响. 中国临床心理学杂志, 23(1), 63-66.]
[75]	Zinchenko, O., Savelo, O., & Klucharev, V. (2021). Role of the prefrontal cortex in prosocial and self-maximization motivations: An rTMS study. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 22334.
[76]	Zinchenko, O., Yaple, Z. A., & Arsalidou, M. (2018). Brain responses to dynamic facial expressions: A normative meta-analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 227. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00227 pmid: 29922137