负折扣行为的加工机制：基于查询理论的解释

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.1387

摘要/Abstract

摘要： 跨期决策中的负折扣行为对传统基于正折扣假设的决策模型提出了挑战。本研究基于查询理论, 通过4项研究系统探讨了负折扣行为的加工机制。研究1和研究2采用方面列表法发现, 优先且更多查询立即损失的“价值增加”信息的个体, 更倾向于选择立即损失; 而优先且更多查询立即损失的“价值减少”信息的个体, 更倾向于选择延迟损失。研究3则通过操纵查询顺序, 旨在检验查询顺序对负折扣行为的因果影响, 结果发现, 优先检索立即损失理由会增强负折扣行为。研究4进一步表明, 随着损失金额增大, 个体更倾向于选择延迟损失, 其机制在于检索更多立即损失的“价值减少”信息且检索顺序更早。本研究为理解负折扣行为提供了新的理论视角, 并为行为干预提供了实证依据。

关键词: 负折扣行为, 查询理论, 跨期决策, 时间折扣

Abstract: Negative discounting behavior in intertemporal decision-making, which refers to individuals' preference for immediate aversive events over delayed ones, poses a notable challenge to traditional temporal discounting models based on positive discounting assumptions. Previous interpretations have predominantly centered on emotional factors, such as dread, yet they have generally neglected the cognitive processes involved, particularly the crucial role of information retrieval content and sequence during decision-making. This study, grounded in query theory, which postulates that decision preferences are constructed through the sequential retrieval of internal information, proposed that individuals who more frequently and prioritally retrieve “value-increasing” information—encompassing the positive and negative attributes of immediate and delayed losses, respectively—are more inclined to display negative discounting behavior. Conversely, those who predominantly access “value-decreasing” information, including the negative and positive attributes of immediate and delayed losses, respectively, tend to exhibit positive discounting tendencies. To provide a cognitive framework complementing existing emotion-focused explanations, the current study hypothesized that loss magnitude moderates negative discounting behavior by shaping the content and order of queries.
Four systematic studies were conducted with adult participants recruited via online platforms. Study 1 (n = 208) and Study 2 (n = 202) adopted the aspect listing method under the “Pre-Decisional Querying” and “Reasoning First” procedures, respectively, combined with a binary choice paradigm and 7-point scales. Participants were exposed to four negative scenarios (i.e., losing 100 yuan, being stung by hornet, receiving a poor grade, and taking an exam) and were required to list their decision-making reasons either before or after indicating their temporal preferences. Study 3 (n = 223) directly manipulated the query order by instructing participants to generate reasons for immediate or delayed loss first to verify the causal relationship between query order and negative discounting behavior. Study 4 (n = 386) varied the magnitude of loss across four levels (i.e., ¥10, ¥100, ¥1, 000, ¥10, 000) to explore how loss magnitude impacts decision preferences. Across all studies, participants' open-ended reasons were coded into value-increasing and value-decreasing categories, and weight analysis was performed on these reasons.
Results of Studies 1 and 2 indicate that negative discounting behavior was prevalent across the four negative scenarios, with the most prominent tendency observed in the “taking an exam” context. Consistent with the initial hypotheses, individuals with negative discounting tendencies retrieved significantly more value-increasing information, whereas those leaning toward positive discounting accessed more value-decreasing information; the two types of information jointly predicted decision preferences. In addition, individuals with negative discounting showed distinct characteristics in the sequential order of information retrieval, which was closely correlated with their choice tendencies. Note that across all scenarios, the reasons retrieved first were assigned greater weight in decision-making compared with those generated later. Study 3 demonstrated that manipulating query order exerts an impact on decision preferences. In most scenarios, participants instructed to prioritize reasons for immediate loss were more likely to opt for immediate aversive events. The exception was the “being stung by hornet” scenario, in which the manipulation had no significant effect. Study 4 revealed that loss magnitude moderated negative discounting behavior, because increases in loss magnitude led to a corresponding shift in individuals' tendency toward delayed loss. Moreover, information retrieval played a mediating role in the relationship between loss magnitude and decision-making, bridging the two factors through cognitive processing pathways.
This research identifies the content and sequential order of information retrieval as the core cognitive mechanism underlying negative discounting behavior, supplementing the traditional emotion-based explanatory frameworks. It enriches intertemporal choice theory by integrating the query-based cognitive process into the existing theoretical system and provides empirical evidence that decision preferences can be altered by manipulating the query order. From a practical perspective, findings offer actionable insights for behavioral interventions in such domains as financial debt repayment, health management, and preventive medical care. By structuring the sequence of queries, individuals could be guided toward making adaptive intertemporal choices, thereby highlighting the theoretical and practical significance of this study.

Key words: negative discounting behavior, query theory, intertemporal decision-making, time discounting

中图分类号:

B842

刘雷, 刘雯霞, 程阳, 葛春磊, 刘泓婷, 李宇. (2026). 负折扣行为的加工机制：基于查询理论的解释. 心理学报, 58(7), 1387-1404.

LIU Lei, LIU Wenxia, CHENG Yang, GE Chunlei, LIU Hongting, LI Yu. (2026). Processing mechanism of negative discounting behavior: Explanation based on query theory. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 58(7), 1387-1404.

参考文献

[1] Amlung M., Vedelago L., Acker J., Balodis I., & MacKillop J. (2017). Steep delay discounting and addictive behavior: A meta-analysis of continuous associations.Addiction, 112(1), 51-62.
[2] Appelt K. C., Hardisty D. J., & Weber E. U. (2011). Asymmetric discounting of gains and losses: A query theory account.Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 43(2), 107-126.
[3] Baker E., Johnson M. W., & Bickel W. K. (2003). Delay discounting in current and never-before cigarette smokers: Similarities and differences across commodity, sign, and magnitude.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(3), 382-392.
[4] Barile L., Cullis J., & Jones P. (2018). Time preference for investment in the environment: The impact of intrinsic motivation.Economic Issues, 23(2), 31-56.
[5] Berns G. S., Chappelow J., Cekic M., Zink C. F., Pagnoni G., & Martin-Skurski M. E. (2006). Neurobiological substrates of dread.Science, 312(5774), 754-758.
[6] Daugherty, J. R., & Brase, G. L. (2010). Taking time to be healthy: Predicting health behaviors with delay discounting and time perspective.Personality and Individual Differences, 48(2), 202-207.
[7] Dinner I., Johnson E. J., Goldstein D. G., & Liu K. (2011). Partitioning default effects: Why people choose not to choose.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 17(4), 332-341.
[8] Ericsson K. A.,& Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data (Rev ed) The MIT Press Verbal Reports as Data (Rev. ed.). The MIT Press.
[9] Figner B., Knoch D., Johnson E. J., Krosch A. R., Lisanby S. H., Fehr E., & Weber E. U. (2010). Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice.Nature Neuroscience, 13(5), 538-539.
[10] Finke, M. S., & Huston, S. J. (2013). Time preference and the importance of saving for retirement.Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 89, 23-34.
[11] Frederick S., Loewenstein G., & O'Donoghue T. (2002). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review.Journal of Economic Literature, 40(2), 351-401.
[12] Green, L., & Myerson, J. (2004). A discounting framework for choice with delayed and probabilistic rewards.Psychological Bulletin, 130(5), 769-792.
[13] Hardisty D. J., Johnson E. J., & Weber E. U. (2010). A dirty word or a dirty world? Attribute framing, political affiliation, and query theory.Psychological Science, 21(1), 86-92.
[14] Hare T. A., Camerer C. F., & Rangel A. (2009). Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system.Science, 324(5927), 646-648.
[15] Harris, C. R. (2012). Feelings of dread and intertemporal choice.Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25(1), 13-28.
[16] Harrison, G. W., & List, J. A. (2004). Field experiments. Journal of Economic Literature, 42(4), 1009-1055.
[17] Harvey, C. M. (1994). The reasonableness of non-constant discounting.Journal of Public Economics, 53(1), 31-51.
[18] Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524.
[19] Johnson E. J., Haübl G., & Keinan A. (2007). Aspects of endowment: A query theory of value construction.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(3), 461-474.
[20] Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-Being: The foundations of hedonic psychology(pp. 3-25). Russell Sage Foundation.
[21] Kahneman D., Knetsch J. L., & Thaler R. H. (1991). The endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias.Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 193-206.
[22] Klingspon K. L., Holland J. M., Neimeyer R. A., & Lichtenthal W. G. (2015). Unfinished business in bereavement.Death Studies, 39(7), 387-398.
[23] Laibson, D. (1997). Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting.The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 443-478.
[24] LeDoux, J. E. (2012). Rethinking the emotional brain.Neuron, 73(4), 653-676.
[25] Loewenstein, G. (1987). Anticipation and the valuation of delayed consumption.The Economic Journal, 97(387), 666-684.
[26] Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (1992). Anomalies in intertemporal choice: Evidence and an interpretation.The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(2), 573-597.
[27] Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (1993). Preferences for sequences of outcomes.Psychological Review, 100(1), 91-108.
[28] Loewenstein G. F., Weber E. U., Hsee C. K., & Welch N. (2001). Risk as feelings.Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 267-286.
[29] Maxwell, S. E. (2004). The persistence of underpowered studies in psychological research: Causes, consequences, and remedies.Psychological Methods, 9(2), 147-163.
[30] Mazur, J. E. (1984). Tests of an equivalence rule for fixed and variable reinforcer delays.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 10(4), 426-436.
[31] Mischel W., Grusec J., & Masters J. C. (1969). Effects of expected delay time on the subjective value of rewards and punishments.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11(4), 363-373.
[32] Mukherjee S., Sahay A., Pammi V. C., & Srinivasan N. (2017). Is loss-aversion magnitude-dependent? Measuring prospective affective judgments regarding gains and losses.Judgment and Decision Making, 12(1), 81-89.
[33] Ostaszewski, P., & Karzel, K. (2002). Discounting of delayed and probabilistic losses of different amounts.European Psychologist, 7(4), 295-301.
[34] Poon N., Luckman A., Isoni A., & Mullett T. L. (2023). A query theory account of the attraction effect.Cognition, 238, 105495.
[35] Samuelson, P. A. (1937). A note on measurement of utility.The Review of Economic Studies, 4(2), 155-161.
[36] Spälti A. K., Brandt M. J., & Zeelenberg M. (2017). Memory retrieval processes help explain the incumbency advantage. Judgment and Decision Making, 12(2), 173-182.
[37] Sun H. Y., Cui L. Y., & Li D. (2016). Negative discounting: The self-other discrepancy in intertemporal choice.Journal of Psychological Science, 39(4), 970-976.
[孙红月, 崔丽莹, 李丹. (2016). 负折扣现象:跨期决策中的自我-他人决策差异.心理科学, 39(4), 970-976.]
[38] Sun H. Y., Li A. M., Chen S., Zhao D., Rao L. L., Liang Z. Y., & Li S. (2015). Pain now or later: An outgrowth account of pain-minimization.PLOS ONE, 10(3), e0119320.
[39] Sun H. Y., Lu P., & Jiang Y. P. (2021). Negative discounting in intertemporal choice.Advances in Psychological Science, 29(7), 1291-1299.
[孙红月, 鲁盼, 蒋元萍. (2021). 跨期决策中的负折扣现象及其机制.心理科学进展, 29(7), 1291-1299.]
[40] Sun H. Y., Ma J. T., Zhou L., Jiang C. M., & Li S. (2022). Waiting is painful: The impact of anticipated dread on negative discounting in the loss domain.Judgment and Decision Making, 17(6), 1353-1378.
[41] Thaler, R. (1981). Some empirical evidence on dynamic inconsistency.Economics Letters, 8(3), 201-207.
[42] Weber E. U.,& Johnson, E. J. (2006). Constructing preferences from memory. In S. Lichtenstein & P. Slovic (Eds.), The construction of preference (pp. 397-410). Cambridge University Press.
[43] Weber E. U., Johnson E. J., Milch K. F., Chang H., Brodscholl J. C., & Goldstein D. G. (2007). Asymmetric discounting in intertemporal choice: A query theory account.Psychological Science, 18(6), 516-523.
[44] Yeh Y. H., Myerson J., Strube M. J., & Green L. (2020). Choice patterns reveal qualitative individual differences among discounting of delayed gains, delayed losses, and probabilistic losses.Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 113(3), 609-625.