HIV stigma based on dual perspectives of the uninfected and the infected

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.00323

Abstract

Abstract:

HIV stigma consists of public stigma and self-stigma. The former refers to the public's prejudice, stereotype and discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA); the latter refers to the perception of prejudice, stereotype and discrimination from the public, and thus negative self-recognition is formed. The measurement is mainly carried out from the uninfected group and the infected individuals. HIV stigma is widespread in many areas of life such as individuals, families, health care providers, and the media. Public stigma and self-stigma survive together, hindering the effective prevention and treatment towards HIV/AIDS, and undermining social equality seriously. Interventions to reduce HIV stigma not only focus on eliminating prejudice, stereotype and discrimination of uninfected group, and improving the social stigma environment, but also focus on paying attention to improving the mental health and treatment willingness of infected individuals, and improving their quality of life. In addition, HIV stigma intervention studies should focus on strengthening the balance between the infected and uninfected group. In the future, we should conduct an in-depth study on the interaction mechanism, measurement tools, intervention measures, and courtesy stigma from the dual perspectives of the uninfected and the infected groups.

Key words: HIV/AIDS, public stigma, self-stigma, dual perspective, intervention strategy

CLC Number:

B849:C91

DUAN Wenjie, LI Yumei, HE Along, WU Tong. HIV stigma based on dual perspectives of the uninfected and the infected[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2021, 29(2): 323-337.

References 88

[1]	曹越, 黄笛, 刘小平, 郭昫澄, 李十月, 燕虹, 孟详喻, 方程, 曾宪涛. (2018). 中国医务人员艾滋病污名现状meta分析. 中国公共卫生, 34(8), 1182-1186.
[2]	段文杰, 冯宇. (2018). 体重污名: 对肥胖的歧视与偏见. 心理科学进展, 26(6), 1074-1082.
[3]	李强, 高文珺, 许丹. (2008). 心理疾病污名形成理论述评. 心理科学进展, 16(4), 582-589.
[4]	刘颖, 时勘. (2010). 艾滋病污名的形成机制、负面影响与干预. 心理科学进展, 18(1), 123-131.
[5]	杨玲, 朱雅雯, 李建升. (2007). 艾滋病污名研究述评. 西北师大学报(社会科学版), 44(4), 59-63.
[6]	岳童, 王晓刚, 黄希庭(2012). 心理疾病自我污名: 心理康复的一个高危因子. 心理科学进展, 20(9), 1448-1456.
[7]	Ali, A., Hassiotis, A., Strydom, A., & King, M. (2012). Self-stigma in people with intellectual disabilities and courtesy stigma in family carers: A systematic review. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33(6), 2122-2140. URL pmid: 22784823
[8]	Berger, B. E., Ferrans, C. E., & Lashley, F. R. (2001). Measuring stigma in people with HIV: Psychometric assessment of the HIV stigma scale. Research in Nursing & Health, 24(6), 518-529. URL pmid: 11746080
[9]	Berkley-Patton, J. Y., Moore, E., Berman, M., Simon, S. D., Thompson, C. B., Schleicher, T., & Hawes, S. M. (2013). Assessment of HIV-related stigma in a US faith-based HIV education and testing intervention. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16(3), 18644.
[10]	Blake, Turan, J. M., Atkins, G., Kempf, M. -C., Clay, O. J., Raper, J. L., & Turan, B. (2017). Interpersonal mechanisms contributing to the association between HIV-related internalized stigma and medication adherence. AIDS and Behavior, 21(1), 238-247. URL pmid: 26864692
[11]	Bogart, L. M., Cowgill, B. O., Kennedy, D., Ryan, G., Murphy, D. A., Elijah, J., & Schuster, M. A. (2008). HIV-related stigma among people with HIV and their families: A qualitative analysis. AIDS and Behavior, 12(2), 244-254. URL pmid: 17458691
[12]	Brandt, C. P., Paulus, D. J., Jardin, C., Heggeness, L., Lemaire, C., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2017). Examining anxiety sensitivity as an explanatory construct underlying HIV-related stigma: Relations to anxious arousal, social anxiety, and HIV symptoms among persons living with HIV. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 48, 95-101. URL pmid: 27527687
[13]	Brendan, M. B., & Nyblade, L. (2014). Different dimensions of HIV-related stigma may have opposite effects on HIV testing: Evidence among young men and women in South Africa. AIDS and Behavior, 18(5), 958-965. URL pmid: 24101100
[14]	Brent, R. J. (2016). The value of reducing HIV stigma. Social Science & Medicine, 151, 233-240.
[15]	Brown, D. C., BeLue, R., & Airhihenbuwa, C. O. (2010). HIV and AIDS-related stigma in the context of family support and race in South Africa. Ethnicity & Health, 15(5), 441-458. URL pmid: 20582774
[16]	Bunn, J. Y., Solomon, S. E., Miller, C., & Forehand, R. (2007). Measurement of stigma in people with HIV: A reexamination of the HIV stigma scale. AIDS Education & Prevention, 19(3), 198-208. URL pmid: 17563274
[17]	Cama, E., Brener, L., Slavin, S., & de Wit, J. (2015). The impact of HIV treatment-related stigma on uptake of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Care, 27(6), 739-742. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2014.998614 URL pmid: 25564893
[18]	Corrigan, P. W., Kerr, A., & Knudsen, L. (2005). The stigma of mental illness: Explanatory models and methods for change. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 11(3), 179-190.
[19]	Creel, A. H., Rimal, R. N., Mkandawire, G., Böse, K., & Brown, J. W. (2011). Effects of a mass media intervention on HIV-related stigma: “Radio Diaries” program in Malawi. Health Education Research, 26(3), 456-465. doi: 10.1093/her/cyr012 URL pmid: 21393376
[20]	Davis, C., Tang, C. S. -K., Chan, S. -F. F., & Noel, B. (1999). The development and validation of the International AIDS Questionnaire-Chinese Version (Iaq-C). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59(3), 481-491.
[21]	Davis, C., Sloan, M., Macmaster, S., & Hughes, L. (2007). The International AIDS Questionnaire—English Version (IAQ-E). Journal of HIV/AIDS Prevention in Children & Youth, 7(2), 29-42.
[22]	Earnshaw, V. A., & Chaudoir, S. R. (2009). From conceptualizing to measuring HIV stigma: A review of HIV stigma mechanism measures. AIDS & Behavior, 13(6), 1160-1177.
[23]	Earnshaw, V. A., Smith, L. R., Chaudoir, S. R., Amico, K. R., & Copenhaver, M. M. (2013). HIV stigma mechanisms and well-being among PLWH: A test of the HIV stigma framework. AIDS and Behavior, 17(5), 1785-1795. doi: 10.1007/s10461-013-0437-9 URL pmid: 23456594
[24]	Eide, A. H., Schür, C., Ranchod, C., Rohleder, P., Swartz, L., & Schneider, M. (2011). Disabled persons’ knowledge of HIV prevention and access to health care prevention services in South Africa. AIDS Care, 23(12), 1595-1601.
[25]	Feyissa, G. T., Feyissa, G. T., Feyissa, G. T., Abebe, L., Girma, E., & Woldie, M. (2012). Stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV by healthcare providers, Southwest Ethiopia. BMC Public Health, 12(1), 522-534.
[26]	Franke, M. F., Muñoz, M., Finnegan, K., Zeladita, J., Sebastian, J. L., Bayona, J. N., & Shin, S. S. (2010). Validation and abbreviation of an HIV stigma scale in an adult Spanish-speaking population in urban Peru. AIDS and Behavior, 14(1), 189-199. doi: 10.1007/s10461-008-9474-1 URL pmid: 18841460
[27]	French, H., Greeff, M., Watson, M. J., & Doak, C. M. (2015). A comprehensive HIV stigma-reduction and wellness-enhancement community intervention: A case study. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 26(1), 81-96.
[28]	Frye, V., Paige, M. Q., Gordon, S., Matthews, D., Musgrave, G., Kornegay, M., & Taylor-Akutagawa, V. (2017). Developing a community-level anti-HIV/AIDS stigma and homophobia intervention in New York city: The project CHHANGE model. Evaluation and Program Planning, 63, 45-53. URL pmid: 28371668
[29]	Galindo, G. R. (2013). A loss of moral experience: Understanding HIV-related stigma in the New York City House and Ball Community. American Journal of Public Health, 103(2), 293-299. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2012.300916 URL pmid: 23237182
[30]	Gao, J., Fu, H., Lin, L., Nehl, E. J., Wong, F. Y., & Zheng, P. P. (2013). Newspaper coverage of HIV/AIDS in China from 2000 to 2010. AIDS Care, 25(9), 1174-1178.
[31]	Goffman, E. (1975). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. American Journal of Psychiatry, 132, 1093-1094.
[32]	Grimm, J. (2017). Prep on twitter: Information, barriers, and stigma. Health Communication, 32(4), 509-516.
[33]	Halli, S. S., Khan, C. G. H., Moses, S., Blanchard, J., Washington, R., Shah, I., & Isac, S. (2017). Family and community level stigma and discrimination among women living with HIV/AIDS in a high HIV prevalence district of India. Journal of HIV/AIDS & Social Services, 16(1), 4-19.
[34]	Hamra, M., Ross, M. W., Karuri, K., Orrs, M., & D'Agostino, A. (2005). The relationship between expressed HIV/AIDS-related stigma and beliefs and knowledge about care and support of people living with AIDS in families caring for HIV-infected children in Kenya. AIDS Care, 17(7), 911-922. URL pmid: 16120508
[35]	Harper, G. W., Lemos, D., & Hosek, S. G. (2014). Stigma reduction in adolescents and young adults newly diagnosed with HIV: Findings from the project ACCEPT intervention. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 28(10), 543-554. doi: 10.1089/apc.2013.0331 URL pmid: 25216106
[36]	Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2013). Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 813-821. URL pmid: 23488505
[37]	Herek. (1999). AIDS and stigma. American Behavioral Scientist, 42(7), 1106-1116. doi: 10.1177/0002764299042007004 URL
[38]	Herek, G. M., Capitanio, J. P., & Widaman, K. (2002). HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: Prevalence and trends, 1991-1999. American Journal of Public Health, 92(3), 371-377. URL pmid: 11867313
[39]	Holzemer, W. L., Uys, L. R., Chirwa, M. L., Greeff, M., Makoae, L. N., Kohi, T. W., … Durrheim, K. (2007). Validation of the HIV/AIDS stigma instrument—PLWA (HASI-P). AIDS Care, 19(8), 1002-1012.
[40]	Johnson, C. G., Brodsky, J. L., & Cataldo, J. K. (2014). Lung cancer stigma, anxiety, depression, and quality of life. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 32(1), 59-73. doi: 10.1080/07347332.2013.855963 URL pmid: 24428251
[41]	Katz, I. T., Ryu, A. E., Onuegbu, A. G., Psaros, C., Weiser, S. D., Bangsberg, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2013). Impact of HIV-related stigma on treatment adherence: Systematic review and meta-synthesis. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 18640. URL pmid: 24242258
[42]	Li, J., Assanangkornchai, S., Lu, L., Jia, M. H., McNeil, E., You, J., & Chongsuvivatwong, V. (2016). Development of internalized and personal stigma among patients with and without HIV infection and occupational stigma among health care providers in Southern China. Patient Preference and Adherence, 10, 2309-2320. URL pmid: 27877022
[43]	Li, L., Liang, L. -J., Lin, C. Q., & Wu, Z. Y. (2015). Addressing HIV stigma in protected medical settings. AIDS Care, 27(12), 1439-1442. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2015.1114990 URL pmid: 26608559
[44]	Li, L., Wu, Z. Y., Wu, S., Jia, M. H., Lieber, E., & Lu, Y. (2009). Impacts of HIV/AIDS stigma on family identity and interactions in China. Families, Systems & Health, 26(4), 431-442. URL pmid: 19662099
[45]	Li, X. H., Huang, L., Wang, H. H., Fennie, K. P., He, G. P., & Williams, A. B. (2011). Stigma mediates the relationship between self-efficacy, medication adherence, and quality of life among people living with HIV/AIDS in China. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 25(11), 665-671. URL pmid: 22023316
[46]	Lin, C. Q., Li, L., Wan, D., Wu, Z. Y., & Yan, Z. H. (2012). Empathy and avoidance in treating patients living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) among service providers in China. AIDS Care, 24(11), 1341-1348. URL pmid: 22292939
[47]	Lindayani, L., Ibrahim, K., der Wang, J., & Ko, N. -Y. (2018). Independent and synergistic effects of self- and public stigmas on quality of life of HIV-infected persons. AIDS Care, 30(6), 706-713. URL pmid: 29115159
[48]	Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363-385. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363 URL
[49]	Liu, H. J., Xu, Y. F., Sun, Y. H., Dumenci, L., & Seedat, S. (2014). Measuring HIV stigma at the family level: Psychometric assessment of the Chinese Courtesy Stigma Scales (CCSSs). PLOS ONE, 9, e92855. URL pmid: 24658364
[50]	Logie, C., James, L., Tharao, W., & Loutfy, M. (2013). Associations between HIV-related stigma, racial discrimination, gender discrimination, and depression among HIV-positive African, Caribbean, and Black Women in Ontario, Canada. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 27(2), 114-122. doi: 10.1089/apc.2012.0296 URL pmid: 23373665
[51]	Mahajan, A. P., Sayles, J. N., Patel, V. A., Remien, R. H., Sawires, S. R., Ortiz, D. J., & Coates, T. J. (2008). Stigma in the HIV/AIDS epidemic: A review of the literature and recommendations for the way forward. AIDS, 22(2), 67-79.
[52]	Mak, W. W. S., Cheung, R. Y. M., Law, R. W., Woo, J., Li, P. C. K., & Chung, R. W. Y. (2007). Examining attribution model of self-stigma on social support and psychological well-being among people with HIV+/AIDS. Social Science & Medicine, 64(8), 1549-1559. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.12.003 URL pmid: 17223239
[53]	Ma, P. H. X., Chan, Z. C. Y., & Loke, A. Y. (2019). Self-stigma reduction interventions for people living with HIV/AIDS and their families: A systematic review. AIDS and Behavior, 23(3), 707-741. doi: 10.1007/s10461-018-2304-1 URL pmid: 30298241
[54]	Mason, S., & Sultzman, V. O. (2019). Stigma as experienced by children of HIV-positive parents: A narrative review. AIDS Care, 31(9), 1049-1060. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2019.1573968 URL pmid: 30704274
[55]	McAteer, C. I., Truong, N. -A. T., Aluoch, J., Deathe, A. R., Nyandiko, W. M., Marete, I., & Vreeman, R. C. (2016). A systematic review of measures of HIV/AIDS stigma in paediatric HIV-infected and HIV-affected populations. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 19(1), 21204. URL pmid: 27717409
[56]	Miller, C. T., Varni, S. E., Solomon, S. E., Desarno, M. J., & Bunn, J. Y. (2016). Macro-level implicit HIV prejudice and the health of community residents with HIV. Health Psychology, 35(8), 807-815. doi: 10.1037/hea0000314 URL pmid: 27505199
[57]	Mo, P. K. -H., Lau, J. T. F., Yu, X., & Gu, J. (2015). A model of associative stigma on depression and anxiety among children of HIV-infected parents in China. AIDS and Behavior, 19(1), 50-59. URL pmid: 24879629
[58]	Nyblade, L., Srinivasan, K., Mazur, A., Raj, T., Patil, D. S., Devadass, D., & Ekstrand, M. L. (2018). HIV stigma reduction for health facility staff: Development of a blended-learning intervention. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 165-165. URL pmid: 29977887
[59]	Parker, R., & Aggleton, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: A conceptual framework and implications for action. Social Science & Medicine, 57(1), 13-24. doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00304-0 URL pmid: 12753813
[60]	Pickles, D., King, L., & Belan, I. (2009). Attitudes of nursing students towards caring for people with HIV/AIDS: Thematic literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(11), 2262-2273. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2009.05128.x URL pmid: 19832747
[61]	Pisal, H., Sutar, S., Sastry, J., Kapadia-Kundu, N., Joshi, A., Joshi, M., … Shankar, A. V. (2007). Nurses' health education program in India increases HIV knowledge and reduces fear. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 18(6), 32-43.
[62]	Pitpitan, E. V., Kalichman, S. C., Eaton, L. A., Cain, D., Sikkema, K. J., Skinner, D., & Pieterse, D. (2012). AIDS-related stigma, HIV testing, and transmission risk among patrons of informal drinking places in Cape Town, South Africa. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 43(3), 362-371. URL pmid: 22367752
[63]	Pretorius, J. B., Greeff, M., Freeks, F. E., & Kruger, A. (2016). A HIV stigma reduction intervention for people living with HIV and their families. Health SA Gesondheid, 21, 187-195.
[64]	Reinius, M., Rao, D., Manhart, L. E., Wiklander, M., Svedhem, V., Pryor, J., … Eriksson, L. E. (2018). Differential item functioning for items in Berger’s HIV Stigma Scale: An analysis of cohorts from the Indian, Swedish, and US contexts. Quality of Life Research, 27(6), 1647-1659. URL pmid: 29574526
[65]	Ren, C. B., Hust, S. J. T., & Zhang, P. (2014). Chinese newspapers' coverage of HIV transmission over a decade (2000-2010): Where HIV stigma arises. Chinese Journal of Communication, 7(3), 267-284. doi: 10.1080/17544750.2014.926953 URL
[66]	Rolbiecki, A., Zhang, N., Hampton, D., & Binson, D. (2016). Photo-stories of stigma among gay-identified men with HIV in small-town America: A qualitative exploration of voiced and visual accounts and intervention implications. Arts & Health, 8(1), 50-64.
[67]	Saleem, M., Anderson, C. A., & Gentile, D. A. (2012). Effects of prosocial, neutral, and violent video games on college students' affect. Aggressive Behavior, 38(4), 263-271. doi: 10.1002/ab.21427 URL pmid: 22549724
[68]	Sengupta, S., Banks, B., Jonas, D., Miles, M. S., & Smith, G. C. (2011). HIV interventions to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma: A systematic review. AIDS and Behavior, 15(6), 1075-1087. doi: 10.1007/s10461-010-9847-0 URL pmid: 21088989
[69]	Skinta, M. D., Lezama, M., Wells, G., & Dilley, J. W. (2015). Acceptance and compassion-based group therapy to reduce HIV stigma. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 22(4), 481-490.
[70]	Stangl, A. L., Lloyd, J. K., Brady, L. M., Holland, C. E., & Baral, S. (2013). A systematic review of interventions to reduce HIV-related stigma and discrimination from 2002 to 2013: How far have we come? Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 3(Suppl 2).
[71]	Stein, J. A., & Li, L. (2008). Measuring HIV-related stigma among Chinese service providers: Confirmatory factor analysis of a multidimensional scale. AIDS and Behavior, 12(5), 789-795. doi: 10.1007/s10461-007-9339-z URL pmid: 18064554
[72]	Sweeney, S. M., & Vanable, P. A. (2016). The association of HIV-related stigma to HIV medication adherence: A systematic review and synthesis of the literature. AIDS and Behavior, 20(1), 29-50. doi: 10.1007/s10461-015-1164-1 URL pmid: 26303196
[73]	Takada, S., Weiser, S. D., Kumbakumba, E., Muzoora, C., Martin, J. N., Hunt, P. W., … Tsai, A. C. (2014). The dynamic relationship between social support and HIV-related stigma in rural Uganda. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 48(1), 26-37. URL pmid: 24500077
[74]	Turan, B., Budhwani, H., Fazeli, P. L., Browning, W. R., Raper, J. L., Mugavero, M. J., & Turan, J. M. (2017). How does stigma affect people living with HIV? The mediating roles of internalized and anticipated HIV stigma in the effects of perceived community stigma on health and psychosocial outcomes. AIDS and Behavior, 21(1), 283-291. doi: 10.1007/s10461-016-1451-5 URL pmid: 27272742
[75]	Uys, L., Chirwa, M., Kohi, T., Greeff, M., Naidoo, J., Makoae, L., & Holzemer, W. L. (2009). Evaluation of a health setting-based stigma intervention in five African countries. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 23(12), 1059-1066. URL pmid: 20025515
[76]	Valdiserri, R. O. (2002). HIV/AIDS stigma: An impediment to public health. American Journal of Public Health, 92(3), 341-342. doi: 10.2105/ajph.92.3.341 URL pmid: 11867303
[77]	Visser, M. J., Kershaw, T., Makin, J. D., Forsyth, B. W. C. (2008). Development of parallel scales to measure HIV-related stigma. AIDS and Behavior, 12(5), 759-771. URL pmid: 18266101
[78]	Visser, M. J., Makin, J. D., Vandormael, A., Sikkema, K. J., & Forsyth, B. W. C. (2009). HIV/AIDS stigma in a South African community. AIDS Care, 21(2), 197-206. URL pmid: 19229689
[79]	Wagner, A. C., Hart, T. A., McShane, K. E., Margolese, S., & Girard, T. A. (2014). Health care provider attitudes and beliefs about people living with HIV: Initial validation of the health care provider HIV/AIDS Stigma Scale (HPASS). AIDS and Behavior, 18(12), 2397-2408. URL pmid: 24965675
[80]	Wei, C. Y., Yan, H. J., Yang, C. K., Raymond, H. F., Li, J. J., Yang, H. T., … Stall, R. (2014). Accessing HIV testing and treatment among men who have sex with men in China: A qualitative study. AIDS Care, 26(3), 372-378. URL pmid: 23909807
[81]	World Health Organization. 2020, "Number of people (all ages) living with HIV: Estimates by WHO Region". Retrieved April 4, 2020 from https://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.22100WHO?lang=en
[82]	Wouters, E., Rau, A., Engelbrecht, M., Uebel, K. E., Siegel, J., Masquillier, C., … Yassi, A. (2016). The development and piloting of parallel scales measuring external and internal HIV and tuberculosis stigma among healthcare workers in the Free State Province, South Africa. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 62(3), 244-254.
[83]	Wu, S., Li, L., Wu, Z. Y., Liang, L. -J., Cao, H. J., Yan, Z. H., & Li, J. H. (2008). A brief HIV stigma reduction intervention for service providers in China. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 22(6), 513-520. doi: 10.1089/apc.2007.0198 URL pmid: 18462076
[84]	Wu, X. H., Chen, J., Huang, H. G., Liu, Z. P., Li, X. H., & Wang, H. H. (2015). Perceived stigma, medical social support and quality of life among people living with HIV/AIDS in Hunan, China. Applied Nursing Research, 28(2), 169-174. URL pmid: 25315140
[85]	Xie, H., Yu, H. T., Watson, R., Wen, J., Xiao, L., Yan, M., & Chen, Y. H. (2019). Cross-cultural validation of the Health Care Provider HIV/AIDS Stigma Scale (HPASS) in China. AIDS and Behavior, 23(4), 1048-1056. doi: 10.1007/s10461-018-2312-1 URL pmid: 30306438
[86]	Yang, L. H., Kleinman, A., Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., Lee, S., & Good, B. (2007). Culture and stigma: Adding moral experience to stigma theory. Social Science & Medicine, 64(7), 1524-1535. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.11.013 URL pmid: 17188411
[87]	Yu, C. -H., Huang, C. -Y., Lee, Y. -T., & Cheng, S. -F. (2019). Development of an 18-item abbreviated Chinese version of Berger's HIV Stigma Scale. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 25(2), e12708. URL pmid: 30402922
[88]	Zelaya, C. E., Sivaram, S., Johnson, S. C., Srikrishnan, A. K., Suniti, S., & Celentano, D. D. (2012). Measurement of self, experienced, and perceived HIV/AIDS stigma using parallel scales in Chennai, India. AIDS Care, 24(7), 846-855. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2011.647674 URL pmid: 22272891