Abstract: In recent years, many studies have shown that the use of turn-by-turn navigation may lead to a decrease in an individual's spatial memory, and that long-term use may ultimately impair an individual's spatial navigation ability. Most current navigation software uses turn-by-turn navigation, such as Google Maps. In this paper, we systematically sort out the research on the effects of turn-by-turn navigation aids on spatial memory. The current research can be categorized into two aspects: comparing turn-by-turn navigation aids with paper maps, aiming to explore the impact of turn-by-turn navigation aids on spatial knowledge acquisition; and designing new navigation aids different from turn-by-turn navigation to improve and innovate the traditional turn-by-turn navigation.
Turn-by-turn navigation gives instructions based on turn points and the route is completely predefined (Mazurkiewicz et al., 2023). Instructions typically contain turn direction and distance information, sometimes only steering information is provided, a typical turn-by-turn instruction is e.g. “turn left in 300 meters”. Turn-by-turn navigation aids are characterized by their implementation on mobile devices using GPS technology, and are therefore capable of updating an individual's current position in real time. This is in contrast to paper maps, which are used as traditional navigation aids. Despite the differences between the findings, turn-by-turn navigation aids are either inferior to paper maps or direct experience in terms of spatial knowledge acquisition, or they are not significantly different from them. When researchers found that spatial knowledge gained using GPS-based 2D mobile maps was poor compared to using paper maps or utilizing direct experience, they hoped to use new technologies to compensate for the shortcomings of turn-by-turn navigational aids.AR maps are exactly that: maps that display virtual routes based on the real world. However, there is still controversy about the advantages and disadvantages of AR maps versus 2D moving maps in terms of spatial knowledge acquisition. In conclusion, despite some discrepancies and contradictions in the results of related studies, we conclude from our review of the existing literature that turn-by-turn navigation may impair specific aspects of an individual's spatial memory, such as landmark knowledge, route knowledge, or global spatial knowledge. However, this conclusion still needs to be further validated by more longitudinal studies as most of the current studies adopt a cross-sectional design.
Therefore, how to improve the turn-by-turn navigation system is especially important. We can improve the command information. For example, landmark-based navigation is exactly adding significant landmark information to the navigation instructions. Research suggests that landmark navigation may be able to match turn-by-turn navigation in terms of navigation efficiency, but this still needs to be supported by more research. Landmark navigation may outperform turn-by-turn navigation in terms of spatial knowledge acquisition. It is possible to adapt the way individuals receive information by augmenting sensory perceptions other than vision to facilitate the formation of spatial memory. For example, sensory augmentation-based GPS navigation systems utilize a 3D spatial audio system (3D spatial audio system), similar to an auditory compass, to allow individuals to reach a destination without explicit instructions, an approach that encourages individuals to actively participate in spatial navigation. Research has shown that auditory compass navigation stimulates more exploratory behavior and creates more accurate cognitive maps than turn-by-turn navigation aids (Clemenson et al., 2021). The acquisition of spatial knowledge can be facilitated by having the navigation system return the individual's freedom to explore the environment and plan routes. One study designed a Potential Route Area Navigation (PRA) with an interface based on a dynamic potential route area that contains all possible routes that the individual is willing to accept, and the individual is free to choose and change the route. Results show that spatial knowledge acquisition and user experience are significantly improved when navigating with PRA compared to traditional turn-by-turn navigation aids represented by Google Maps (Huang et al., 2022). Augmented reality can also be utilized to improve turn-by-turn navigation. Quadcopter-Projected In-Situ Navigation (QPSN) improves the ability of individuals to observe real-world points of interest by presenting navigation commands directly in the environment using augmented reality with a projector quadcopter, thereby improving their ability to observe real-world points of interest (Knierim et al., 2018). In addition, a spatial knowledge test is imposed several times during navigation to consolidate the individual's spatial memory, based on the test effect and the pretest effect. Design game modes specifically designed to exercise spatial navigation skills. Finally, provide adaptive services to meet the diverse needs of individuals to help develop a sense of independent navigation and avoid over-reliance on mobile assistive devices.
Future research should focus on the following aspects: improving the measurement of spatial knowledge in large-scale environments; exploring the neural mechanisms by which turn-by-turn navigation impairs spatial memory, although most behavioral experiments have shown that turn-by-turn navigation is detrimental to the acquisition of spatial knowledge, the neurophysiological evidence for which is still limited; and focusing on the effects of individual difference factors (e.g., gender, directionality, level of spatial anxiety, and perspective taking ability) in order to establish a more comprehensive explanatory mechanism. comprehensive explanatory mechanisms. Finally, the new generation of navigation systems should improve the efficiency of wayfinding while taking into account the acquisition of individual spatial knowledge.

Key words: turn-by-turn navigation, navigation aids, spatial memory