The behavioral effects of nudge: A meta-analysis based on a dual perspective of “Cognitive Pathway” and “Transparency”

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.02275

Abstract

Abstract:

Challenges faced by nudges in practice have prompted scholars to reflect on effectiveness and applicable conditions of nudge. A common approach is to conduct meta-analyses on the results of behavioral intervention experiments involving nudges. However, existing meta-analyses have significant limitations. On one hand, due to differences in the selection of effect size indicators, the results of different meta-analyses lack comparability, preventing a comprehensive view of the overall effects of various nudging tools across common behavioral domains. On the other hand, most existing meta-analyses categorize nudges based on the “MINDSPACE” framework, which does not encompass all nudge interventions.

Drawing inspiration from Hansen and Jespersen (2013), this study establishes an analytical framework from a dual perspective of cognitive pathway and transparency, encompassing commonly used nudging interventions in practice. Based on this framework, a meta-analysis is conducted to compare the differences in effectiveness across nudge categories, providing a comprehensive and objective evaluation of the real effects of nudges under different cognitive pathways and levels of transparency. This helps address academic disputes regarding the effectiveness of nudges under different cognitive pathways and transparency levels.

This study focuses on the effectiveness of nudge in the actual policy domain, conducting a meta-analysis on nudge intervention experimental research published in the two professional journals: Behavioural Public Policy (2017-2022) and Behavioral Science & Policy (2015-2022). Using the standardized mean difference (Cohen's d) as an effect size index, Comprehensive Meta Analysis 2.0 is employed to calculate the effect size. All articles published in these two journals were included (a total of 330) in our sample frame, and a thorough reading of the full text was used to screen the literature one by one. The experimental data included in the meta-analysis had to meet the calculation requirements of CMA 2.0, containing basic statistical data such as means, standard deviations, t-values, and F-values. After screening, 40 sample articles were ultimately selected, yielding 108 research results. Considering the differences in research sample sizes, a random effects model was applied to calculate the overall effect of nudging, and then compare the effectiveness of nudges that work through different cognitive pathways and are presented with different levels of transparency. Subsequently, a regression analysis model is established using SPSS25 to test the effects of three classes of heterogeneity factors (research design, behavioral characteristics, and behavioral domains) with eight variables (sample size, field experiment, data type, behavioral motivation, monetary change, health, consumption, finance, public interest) on nudging intervention effects; Finally, an interaction regression analysis model is constructed to analyze the interactions between nudge cognitive pathways, transparency, and heterogeneity factors.

The results showed that: (1) Nudge research in the field of behavioral public policy has a relatively small overall effect and still faces the risk of failure in practice. (2) Transparent nudges can also be effective in guiding people to change their behaviour, and there is an interactive effect between different nudges that work through different cognitive pathways and are presented with different levels of transparency. (3) The effects of nudges are influenced by study design and vary across different behavioral domains. (4) Complex interactions are observed between the cognitive pathways through which nudges operate, the transparency of nudge design, and the factors affecting effect size heterogeneity.

The academic contributions of this paper are: (1) By conducting a meta-analysis on nudge behavioral effects from the dual perspectives of “cognitive pathway” and “transparency”, this research helps separate the actual effects of various psychological cognitive processes and intervention techniques, aiding in forming an objective understanding of the real effectiveness of different types of nudges. (2) Evaluating the effects and differences of various nudges, which not only addresses the academic debate on whether nudge designs should be transparent but also compares the differences in the effects of two cognitive pathways on behavior change, providing empirical evidence for the selection of nudging tools in subsequent policy practices. (3) This study's analysis of the root causes of heterogeneity in nudge effects enriches the literature on the factors influencing nudge effectiveness and applicable conditions, promoting the accumulation of knowledge in the field of behavioral public policy.

Key words: behavioural public policy, nudge, meta-analysis, policy effectiveness, cognitive pathway, transparency

CLC Number:

B849: C91

LI Yan, CHEN Wenjin, ZHANG Shuwei. The behavioral effects of nudge: A meta-analysis based on a dual perspective of “Cognitive Pathway” and “Transparency”[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2023, 31(12): 2275-2294.

Figures/Tables 9

References 105

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作者(年份)	行为领域	实验类型	干预方式	样本来源	样本量
Mol等(2021)	购买洪水灾害保险	在线实验	描述性社会规范	荷兰、西班牙	1805
Sloman等(2023)	政策态度(移民、金融、工资、援助)	在线实验	公开公民会议信息	美国	1359
Persian等(2023)	提前申报税单	实地实验	简化/指导/提示信息/心理暗示	印尼	11157069
Dewies等(2022)	误领补贴还款	实地实验	强化信息可读性和易识别性	荷兰	3330
Hodson (2023)	癌症检查	在线实验	利用“癌症”的可得性偏见	美国	411
Boruchowicz等(2023)	行程轨迹追踪app安装(疫情防控)	实地实验	默认选项	拉丁美洲	18000
Bradt (2022)	购买洪水灾害保险	在线实验	描述洪灾危害	美国	331
Blanco & Rodriguez (2020)	退休储蓄	实地实验	同辈与家庭看法	西班牙	347438
Chin & Beckett (2021)	信息阅读	实验室实验	“旁边有人”与强制等待时间	美国	408
Rinscheid等(2021)	气候政策态度	实地实验	描述性社会规范	美国	1520
Kantorowicz-Reznichenko等(2022)	疫苗接种	实地实验	传递新冠伤亡信息	以色列、英国	2429
Sin等(2022)	冲动购物	在线实验	延迟/反思/分心	美国	1226
Linos等(2022)	奖学金申请	实地实验	简化信息/强调归属	美国	265570
Gråd等(2021)	促进捐款	在线实验	默认选项/描述性社会规范/强调道德	英国、美国、葡萄牙、波兰	1098
Chen等(2023)	疫苗接种	实地实验	寄送接种卡片提示	美国	208867
Reynolds等(2022)	饮食政策态度	在线实验	食物卡路里信息	英国	4500
Keppeler等(2022)	接种疫苗	实地实验	激发公民心理所有权	德国	27298
Gerber等(2023)	参与总统选举投票	实地实验	语言类型的使用(投票者/去投票)	美国	2219
De-loyde等(2022)	健康饮食	在线实验	生态标签/描述性社会规范	英国	1399
Renaud & Zimmermann (2019)	提高密码设置强度	实地实验	使用密码使用期限	德国	672
Paunov等(2019b)	课程选择	实地实验	默认选项	美国	290
Jachimowicz等(2021)	医疗遵从	实地实验	个人成本/承诺/社会成本	英国	16191
Gravert & Kurz (2021)	健康饮食	实地实验	改变菜单框架	瑞典	1388
Krpan等(2021)	新冠期间外出次数	在线实验	写信/构想活动/强调风险	美国、英国	2637
Ackfeld等(2021)	提供个人信息	实地实验	强调公共利益/个人隐私保护	德国	200000
van Roekel等(2022)	手部卫生	实地实验	张贴海报(框架效应)	荷兰	88
Baggio & Motterlini (2022)	促进捐款	实地实验	改变数额框架/简易捐款流程	以色列	150000
Köbis等(2022)	减少贿赂行为	实验室实验	描述性社会规范	荷兰	311
Veltri等(2023)	网购行为	在线实验	物品信息序列/易识别性	德国、波兰、西班牙、英国	4800
Chandra (2023)	一次性塑料袋使用	在线实验	问题框架	英国	189
Kölle等(2020)	参与总统选举投票注册	实地实验	发送咨询意愿/提示信息短信	英国	4948
Knoll等(2015)	延迟领取退休金	调查实验	利用图表描述提前申领退休金的损失	美国	785
Karlan等(2015)	按期偿还贷款	实地实验	按期发送提醒短信	美国	943
Castelo等(2015)	使用政府网上服务平台	实地实验	利用凸显和框架效应	加拿大	626212
Chapman等(2016)	疫苗接种	实地实验	默认选项	美国	900
Grinstein-Weiss等(2017)	存储退还的税费	实地实验	提供选项和信息干预	美国	646116
Mobekk & Stokke (2020)	使用洗手液	实地实验	描述性社会规范	挪威	700
Li等(2021)	行人等红灯	实地实验	树立警示牌	中国	12000
Berliner Senderey等(2022)	疫苗接种	实地实验	描述性社会规范/强调接种疫苗有益健康	以色列	835282
Ritov & Garcia (2022)	分配医疗资源	调查实验	让医疗人员知晓病人信息	亚马逊平台(MTurk)	255

作者(年份)	行为领域	实验类型	干预方式	样本来源	样本量
Mol等(2021)	购买洪水灾害保险	在线实验	描述性社会规范	荷兰、西班牙	1805
Sloman等(2023)	政策态度(移民、金融、工资、援助)	在线实验	公开公民会议信息	美国	1359
Persian等(2023)	提前申报税单	实地实验	简化/指导/提示信息/心理暗示	印尼	11157069
Dewies等(2022)	误领补贴还款	实地实验	强化信息可读性和易识别性	荷兰	3330
Hodson (2023)	癌症检查	在线实验	利用“癌症”的可得性偏见	美国	411
Boruchowicz等(2023)	行程轨迹追踪app安装(疫情防控)	实地实验	默认选项	拉丁美洲	18000
Bradt (2022)	购买洪水灾害保险	在线实验	描述洪灾危害	美国	331
Blanco & Rodriguez (2020)	退休储蓄	实地实验	同辈与家庭看法	西班牙	347438
Chin & Beckett (2021)	信息阅读	实验室实验	“旁边有人”与强制等待时间	美国	408
Rinscheid等(2021)	气候政策态度	实地实验	描述性社会规范	美国	1520
Kantorowicz-Reznichenko等(2022)	疫苗接种	实地实验	传递新冠伤亡信息	以色列、英国	2429
Sin等(2022)	冲动购物	在线实验	延迟/反思/分心	美国	1226
Linos等(2022)	奖学金申请	实地实验	简化信息/强调归属	美国	265570
Gråd等(2021)	促进捐款	在线实验	默认选项/描述性社会规范/强调道德	英国、美国、葡萄牙、波兰	1098
Chen等(2023)	疫苗接种	实地实验	寄送接种卡片提示	美国	208867
Reynolds等(2022)	饮食政策态度	在线实验	食物卡路里信息	英国	4500
Keppeler等(2022)	接种疫苗	实地实验	激发公民心理所有权	德国	27298
Gerber等(2023)	参与总统选举投票	实地实验	语言类型的使用(投票者/去投票)	美国	2219
De-loyde等(2022)	健康饮食	在线实验	生态标签/描述性社会规范	英国	1399
Renaud & Zimmermann (2019)	提高密码设置强度	实地实验	使用密码使用期限	德国	672
Paunov等(2019b)	课程选择	实地实验	默认选项	美国	290
Jachimowicz等(2021)	医疗遵从	实地实验	个人成本/承诺/社会成本	英国	16191
Gravert & Kurz (2021)	健康饮食	实地实验	改变菜单框架	瑞典	1388
Krpan等(2021)	新冠期间外出次数	在线实验	写信/构想活动/强调风险	美国、英国	2637
Ackfeld等(2021)	提供个人信息	实地实验	强调公共利益/个人隐私保护	德国	200000
van Roekel等(2022)	手部卫生	实地实验	张贴海报(框架效应)	荷兰	88
Baggio & Motterlini (2022)	促进捐款	实地实验	改变数额框架/简易捐款流程	以色列	150000
Köbis等(2022)	减少贿赂行为	实验室实验	描述性社会规范	荷兰	311
Veltri等(2023)	网购行为	在线实验	物品信息序列/易识别性	德国、波兰、西班牙、英国	4800
Chandra (2023)	一次性塑料袋使用	在线实验	问题框架	英国	189
Kölle等(2020)	参与总统选举投票注册	实地实验	发送咨询意愿/提示信息短信	英国	4948
Knoll等(2015)	延迟领取退休金	调查实验	利用图表描述提前申领退休金的损失	美国	785
Karlan等(2015)	按期偿还贷款	实地实验	按期发送提醒短信	美国	943
Castelo等(2015)	使用政府网上服务平台	实地实验	利用凸显和框架效应	加拿大	626212
Chapman等(2016)	疫苗接种	实地实验	默认选项	美国	900
Grinstein-Weiss等(2017)	存储退还的税费	实地实验	提供选项和信息干预	美国	646116
Mobekk & Stokke (2020)	使用洗手液	实地实验	描述性社会规范	挪威	700
Li等(2021)	行人等红灯	实地实验	树立警示牌	中国	12000
Berliner Senderey等(2022)	疫苗接种	实地实验	描述性社会规范/强调接种疫苗有益健康	以色列	835282
Ritov & Garcia (2022)	分配医疗资源	调查实验	让医疗人员知晓病人信息	亚马逊平台(MTurk)	255

类别	研究数量	效应量	标准误	95.0%置信区间
类别	研究数量	效应量	标准误	下限	上限
透明型系统1	16	0.07	0.01	0.05	0.08
透明型系统2	40	0.27	0.02	0.23	0.32
不透明型系统1	40	0.27	0.04	0.2	0.34
不透明型系统2	12	0.1	0.02	0.06	0.13

类别	研究数量	效应量	标准误	95.0%置信区间
类别	研究数量	效应量	标准误	下限	上限
透明型系统1	16	0.07	0.01	0.05	0.08
透明型系统2	40	0.27	0.02	0.23	0.32
不透明型系统1	40	0.27	0.04	0.2	0.34
不透明型系统2	12	0.1	0.02	0.06	0.13

变量名称	变量定义
效应量	每个研究的标准化均值差, 即Cohen’s d值作为因变量
助推类型
系统1	系统1助推赋值为1, 其他赋值为0
透明型	透明型助推赋值为1, 其他赋值为0
透明型系统1	透明型系统1助推赋值为1, 其他赋值为0
透明型系统2	透明型系统2助推赋值为1, 其他赋值为0
不透明型系统1	不透明型系统1助推赋值为1, 其他赋值为0
研究设计
样本量	单个实验中控制组与对照组合计被试人数大于等于1000赋值为1, 小于1000赋值为0
实验类型	实地实验赋值为1, 其他实验赋值为0
数据类型	连续变量赋值为1, 二分类变量赋值为0
行为特征
行为动机	自利行为赋值为1, 利他行为赋值为0
金钱变动	有实际金钱变动赋值为1, 无金钱变动赋值为0
行为领域
健康	健康领域赋值为1, 其他领域赋值为0
消费	消费领域赋值为1, 其他领域赋值为0
金融	金融领域赋值为1, 其他领域赋值为0
公共利益	涉及公共利益赋值为1, 其他赋值为0