The influence of blindness on auditory vocabulary recognition

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.02131

Abstract

Abstract:

Auditory vocabulary recognition involves complex cognitive processing. Blind people have been reported to exhibit specific advantages in auditory vocabulary processing. However, because of the lack of visual experience, blind people exhibit weaker semantic processing and understanding of some vision-related words (such as color words) compared with individuals with normal vision. Future research should focus on the following issues: examining the visual relevance of vocabulary recognition; carrying out in-depth explorations of cognitive and neurophysiological processing mechanisms at different levels, including phonology, orthography, and semantics; developing auditory vocabulary processing models that reflect the characteristics of blind people's perception; and expanding developmental studies with people of different ages. Taken together, this research may be useful for revealing the mechanisms underlying the influence of blindness on auditory vocabulary recognition among blind people.

Key words: blind people, auditory vocabulary recognition, phonology, semantics, orthography

CLC Number:

B842

FENG Jie, XU Juan, WU Xinchun. The influence of blindness on auditory vocabulary recognition[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2021, 29(12): 2131-2146.

References 125

[1]	曹婕琼. (2004). 视觉障碍儿童辨音能力的认知研究 (硕士学位论文). 华东师范大学, 上海,
[2]	雷江华, 方俊明. (2005). 聋人唇读的大脑机制研究. 心理科学, 28(1), 10-12.
[3]	朴永馨 . 编.(2014). 特殊教育辞典 (第三版, p 227). 北京: 华夏出版社.
[4]	时琴琴. (2011). 盲童和正常儿童对颜色认知的对比 (硕士学位论文). 上海师范大学,
[5]	徐诚. (2013). 唇读研究回顾:从聋人到正常人. 华东师范大学学报(教育科学版), 31(1), 56-61.
[6]	张积家, 党玉晓, 章玉祉, 王惠萍, 罗观. (2008). 盲童心中的颜色概念及其组织. 心理学报, 40(04), 389-401.
[7]	赵英, 伍新春, 谢瑞波, 冯杰, 孙鹏, 陈红君. (2020). 视觉语言对听觉障碍人群阅读能力的影响及作用机制. 心理科学进展, 28(6), 969-977.
[8]	Amedi, A., Floel, A., Knecht, S., Zohary, E., & Cohen, L. G.(2004). Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the occipital pole interferes with verbal processing in blind subjects. Nature Neuroscience, 7(11), 1266-1270. pmid: 15467719
[9]	Amedi, A., Raz, N., Pianka, P., Malach, R., & Zohary, E.(2003). Early ‘visual'cortex activation correlates with superior verbal memory performance in the blind. Nature Neuroscience, 6(7), 758-766. pmid: 12808458
[10]	Arnaud, L., Gracco, V., & Ménard, L.(2018). Enhanced perception of pitch changes in speech and music in early blind adults. Neuropsychologia, 117, 261-270. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.06.009 URL
[11]	Barilari, M., de Heering, A., Crollen, V., Collignon, O., & Bottini, R.(2018). Is red heavier than yellow even for blind? I-Perception, 9(1), 2041669518759123.
[12]	Barsalou, L. W.(1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(4), 577-660. pmid: 11301525
[13]	Barsalou, L. W.(2003). Situated simulation in the human conceptual system. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18(5-6), 513-562.
[14]	Barsalou, L. W., Breazeal, C., & Smith, L. B.(2007). Cognition as coordinated non-cognition. Cognitive Processing, 8(2), 79-91. doi: 10.1007/s10339-007-0163-1 URL
[15]	Bedny, M., Pascual-Leone, A., Dodell-Feder, D., Fedorenko, E., & Saxe, R.(2011). Language processing in the occipital cortex of congenitally blind adults. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(11), 4429-4434. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014818108 URL
[16]	Bedny, M., & Saxe, R.(2012). Insights into the origins of knowledge from the cognitive neuroscience of blindness. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 29(1-2), 56-84. doi: 10.1080/02643294.2012.716635 URL
[17]	Boroujeni, F. M., Heidari, F., Rouzbahani, M., & Kamali, M.(2017). Comparison of auditory stream segregation in sighted and early blind individuals. Neuroscience Letters, 638, 218-221. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.12.022 URL
[18]	Bottini, R., Ferraro, S., Nigri, A., Cuccarini, V., Bruzzone, M. G., & Collignon, O.(2020). Brain regions involved in conceptual retrieval in sighted and blind people. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 32(6), 1009-1025. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_01538 URL
[19]	Buchel, C., Price, C., & Friston, K.(1998). A multimodal language region in the ventral visual pathway. Nature, 394(6690), 274-277. doi: 10.1038/28389 URL
[20]	Burton, H., Diamond, J. B., & McDermott, K. B.(2003). Dissociating cortical regions activated by semantic and phonological tasks: A fMRI study in blind and sighted people. Journal of Neurophysiology, 90(3), 1965-1982. pmid: 12789013
[21]	Burton, H., Snyder, A. Z., Conturo, T. E., Akbudak, E., Ollinger, J. M., & Raichle, M. E.(2002). Adaptive changes in early and late blind: A fMRI study of Braille reading. Journal of Neurophysiology, 87(1), 589-607. pmid: 11784773
[22]	Burton, H., Snyder, A. Z., Diamond, J. B., & Raichle, M. E.(2002). Adaptive changes in early and late blind: A fMRI study of verb generation to heard nouns. Journal of Neurophysiology, 88(6), 3359-3371. pmid: 12466452
[23]	Burton, H., Snyder, A. Z., & Raichle, M. E.(2014). Resting state functional connectivity in early blind humans. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 51.
[24]	Cantlon, J. F., Pinel, P., Dehaene, S., & Pelphrey, K. A.(2011). Cortical representations of symbols, objects, and faces are pruned back during early childhood. Cerebral Cortex, 21(1), 191-199. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhq078 URL
[25]	Chandrasekaran, C., Trubanova, A., Stillittano, S., Caplier, A., & Ghazanfar, A.(2009). The natural statistics of audiovisual speech. PLoS Computational Biology, 5(7), e1000436. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000436 URL
[26]	Chao, Y. R.(2017). A grammar of spoken Chinese (pp 25-30). University of California Press,
[27]	Chen, W. F., Chao, P. C., Chang, Y. N., Hsu, C. H., & Lee, C. Y.(2016). Effects of orthographic consistency and homophone density on Chinese spoken word recognition. Brain and Language, 157-158, 51-62. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2016.04.005 URL
[28]	Chéreau, C., Gaskell, M. G., & Dumay, N.(2007). Reading spoken words: Orthographic effects in auditory priming. Cognition, 102(3), 341-360. pmid: 16480971
[29]	Cohen, L., Dehaene, S., Naccache, L., Lehericy, S., Dehaene- Lambertz, G., Henaff, M. A., & Michel, F.(2000). The visual word form area - spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients. Brain, 123(2), 291-307. doi: 10.1093/brain/123.2.291 URL
[30]	Cohen, L. G, Celnik, P., Pascual-Leone, A., Corwell, B., Faiz, L., Dambrosia, J., ... Hallett, M.(1997). Functional relevance of cross-modal plasticity in blind humans. Nature, 389(6647), 180-183. doi: 10.1038/38278 URL
[31]	Connolly, A. C., Gleitman, L. R., & Thompson-Schill, S. L.(2007). Effect of congenital blindness on the semantic representation of some everyday concepts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(20), 8241-8246. pmid: 17483447
[32]	Cutsforth, T. D.(1932). The unreality of words to the blind. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 25(5b), 86-89.
[33]	Cutsforth, T. D.(1951). The blind in school and society: A psychological study. Amer Foundation for the Blind,
[34]	Decety, J., & Grèzes, J.(2006). The power of simulation: Imagining one's own and other's behavior. Brain Research, 1079(1), 4-14. pmid: 16460715
[35]	Dehaene, S., Pegado, F., Braga, L. W., Ventura, P., Nunes, G., Jobert, A., ... Cohen, L.(2010). How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language. Science, 330(6009), 1359-1364. doi: 10.1126/science.1194140 URL
[36]	Dietrich, S., Hertrich, I., & Ackermann, H.(2013a). Training of ultra-fast speech comprehension induces functional reorganization of the central-visual system in late-blind humans. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 701.
[37]	Dietrich, S., Hertrich, I., & Ackermann, H.(2013b). Ultra-fast speech comprehension in blind subjects engages primary visual cortex, fusiform gyrus, and pulvinar-a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. BMC Neuroscience, 14(1), 74. doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-14-74 URL
[38]	Frith, U.(1998). Literally changing the brain. Brain, 121(6), 1011-1012. doi: 10.1093/brain/121.6.1011 URL
[39]	Glenberg, A. M.(1997). What memory is for. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 20(1), 1-19. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X97000010 URL pmid: 10096994
[40]	Goldman, A. I.(2009). Précis of simulating minds: The philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience of mindreading. Philosophical Studies, 144(3), 431-434. doi: 10.1007/s11098-009-9355-0 URL
[41]	Gordon-Salant, S., & Friedman, S. A.(2011). Recognition of rapid speech by blind and sighted older adults. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 54(2), 622-631. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2010/10-0052) URL
[42]	Gougoux, F., Lepore, F., Lassonde, M., Voss, P., Zatorre, R. J., & Belin, P.(2004). Pitch discrimination in the early blind. Nature, 430(6997), 309-309.
[43]	Gougoux, F., Zatorre, R. J., Lassonde, M., Voss, P., & Lepore, F.(2005). A functional neuroimaging study of sound localization: visual cortex activity predicts performance in early-blind individuals. PLOS Biology, 3(2), 324-333.
[44]	Grant, K. W., & Greenberg, S.(2001). Speech intelligibility derived from asynchronous processing of auditory-visual information. In AVSP 2001-International Conference on Auditory-Visual Speech Processing,
[45]	Hertrich, I., Dietrich, S., & Ackermann, H.(2013). Tracking the speech signal-time-locked MEG signals during perception of ultra-fast and moderately fast speech in blind and in sighted listeners. Brain and Language, 124(1), 9-21. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2012.10.006 pmid: 23332808
[46]	Hertrich, I., Dietrich, S., Moos, A., Trouvain, J., & Ackermann, H.(2009). Enhanced speech perception capabilities in a blind listener are associated with activation of fusiform gyrus and primary visual cortex. Neurocase, 15(2), 163-170. doi: 10.1080/13554790802709054 pmid: 19241219
[47]	Hino, Y., & Lupker, S. J.(1996). Effects of polysemy in lexical decision and naming: An alternative to lexical access accounts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22(6), 1331-1356. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.22.6.1331 URL
[48]	Hötting, K., & Röder, B.(2009). Auditory and auditory-tactile processing in congenitally blind humans. Hearing Research, 258(1-2), 165-174. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2009.10.016 URL
[49]	Huang, X., Yang, J. C., Chang, R., & Guo, C.(2016). Task modulation of disyllabic spoken word recognition in Mandarin Chinese: A unimodal ERP study. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1038/s41598-016-0001-8 URL
[50]	Huang, X., Yang, J. C., Zhang, Q., & Guo, C.(2014). The time course of spoken word recognition in Mandarin Chinese: A unimodal ERP study. Neuropsychologia, 63, 165-174. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.08.015 URL
[51]	Hugdahl, K., Ek, M., Takio, F., Rintee, T., Tuomainen, J., Haarala, C., & Hämäläinen, H.(2004). Blind individuals show enhanced perceptual and attentional sensitivity for identification of speech sounds. Cognitive Brain Research, 19(1), 28-32. doi: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.10.015 URL
[52]	Hull, T., & Mason, H.(1995). Performance of blind children on digit-span tests. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 89(2), 166-169.
[53]	Jafari, Z., & Malayeri, S.(2014). Effects of congenital blindness on the subcortical representation of speech cues. Neuroscience, 258, 401-409. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.11.027 pmid: 24291729
[54]	Jafari, Z., & Malayeri, S.(2016). Subcortical encoding of speech cues in children with congenital blindness. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 34(5), 757-768. doi: 10.3233/RNN-160639 pmid: 27589504
[55]	James, C. T.(1975). The role of semantic information in lexical decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1(2), 130-136. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.1.2.130 URL
[56]	Kim, J. S., Elli, G. V., & Bedny, M.(2019). Knowledge of animal appearance among sighted and blind adults. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(23), 11213-11222.
[57]	Kim, J. S., Kanjlia, S., Merabet, L. B., & Bedny, M.(2017). Development of the visual word form area requires visual experience: Evidence from blind Braille readers. Journal of Neuroscience, 37(47), 11495-11504. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0997-17.2017 URL
[58]	Knowland, V. C. P., Evans, S., Snell, C., & Rosen, S.(2016). Visual speech perception in children with language learning impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59(1), 1-14. doi: 10.1044/2015_JSLHR-S-14-0269 URL
[59]	Kupers, R., Beaulieu-Lefebvre, M., Schneider, F. C., Kassuba, T., Paulson, O. B., Siebner, H. R., & Ptito, M.(2011). Neural correlates of olfactory processing in congenital blindness. Neuropsychologia, 49(7), 2037-2044. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.03.033 pmid: 21458471
[60]	Kutas, M., & Federmeier, K. D.(2011). Thirty years and counting: Finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 621-647. doi: 10.1146/psych.2011.62.issue-1 URL
[61]	Kutas, M., & Hillyard, S. A.(1980). Reading senseless sentences: Brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity. Science, 207(4427), 203-205. pmid: 7350657
[62]	Kutas, M., & Hillyard, S. A.(1984). Brain potentials during reading reflect word expectancy and semantic association. Nature, 307(5947), 161-163. doi: 10.1038/307161a0 URL
[63]	Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M.(1980). The metaphorical structure of the human conceptual system. Cognitive Science, 4(2), 195-208. doi: 10.1207/s15516709cog0402_4 URL
[64]	Landau, B., Gleitman, L. R., & Landau, B.(2009). Language and experience: Evidence from the blind child (Vol. 8, pp. 157-173). Harvard University Press.
[65]	Lane, C., Kanjlia, S., Omaki, A., & Bedny, M.(2015). “Visual” cortex of congenitally blind adults responds to syntactic movement. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(37), 12859-12868. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1256-15.2015 URL
[66]	Lessard, N., Paré, M., Lepore, F., & Lassonde, M.(1998). Early-blind human subjects localize sound sources better than sighted subjects. Nature, 395(6699), 278-280. doi: 10.1038/26228 URL
[67]	Liu, Y., Yu, C., Liang, M., Li, J., Tian, L., Zhou, Y., … Jiang, T.(2007). Whole brain functional connectivity in the early blind. Brain, 130(8), 2085-2096. doi: 10.1093/brain/awm121 URL
[68]	Lusk, L. G., & Mitchel, A. D.(2016). Differential gaze patterns on eyes and mouth during audiovisual speech segmentation. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 52.
[69]	Marmor, G. S.(1978). Age at onset of blindness and the development of the semantics of color names. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 25(2), 267-278. pmid: 660091
[70]	Marslen-Wilson, W. D., & Tyler, L. K.(1980). The temporal structure of spoken language understanding. Cognition, 8(1), 1-71. pmid: 7363578
[71]	Marslen-Wilson, W. D., & Welsh, A.(1978). Processing interactions and lexical access during word recognition in continuous speech. Cognitive Psychology, 10(1), 29-63. doi: 10.1016/0010-0285(78)90018-X URL
[72]	Martin, A.(2016). GRAPES-Grounding representations in action, perception, and emotion systems: How object properties and categories are represented in the human brain. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(4), 979-990. doi: 10.3758/s13423-015-0842-3 URL
[73]	McClelland, J. L., & Elman, J. L.(1986). The TRACE model of speech perception. Cognitive Psychology, 18(1), 1-86. pmid: 3753912
[74]	McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E.(1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception:I. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88(5), 375-407. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.88.5.375 URL
[75]	McGinnis, A. R.(1981). Functional linguistic strategies of blind children. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 75(5), 210-214. doi: 10.1177/0145482X8107500505 URL
[76]	McGurk, H., & MacDonald, J.(1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264, 746-748. doi: 10.1038/264746a0 URL
[77]	Ménard, L., Dupont, S., Baum, S. R., & Aubin, J.(2009). Production and perception of French vowels by congenitally blind adults and sighted adults. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 126(3), 1406-1414. doi: 10.1121/1.3158930 URL
[78]	Miller, K. M., & Swick, D.(2003). Orthography influences the perception of speech in alexic patients. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15(7), 981-990. doi: 10.1162/089892903770007371 URL
[79]	Moos, A., & Trouvain, J.(2007). Comprehension of ultra-fast speech-Blind vs. 'Normally hearing' persons. In Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (Vol. 1, pp. 677-680). Saarland University Saarbrücken, Germany.
[80]	Muchnik, C., Efrati, M., Nemeth, E., Malin, M., & Hildesheimer, M.(1991). Central auditory skills in blind and sighted subjects. Scandinavian Audiology, 20(1), 19-23. pmid: 1842264
[81]	Noppeney, U.(2007). The effects of visual deprivation on functional and structural organization of the human brain. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 31(8), 1169-1180. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.012 URL
[82]	Occelli, V., Lacey, S., Stephens, C., Merabet, L. B., & Sathian, K.(2017). Enhanced verbal abilities in the congenitally blind. Experimental Brain Research, 235(6), 1709-1718. doi: 10.1007/s00221-017-4931-6 URL
[83]	Pasqualotto, A., Lam, J. S., & Proulx, M. J.(2013). Congenital blindness improves semantic and episodic memory. Behavioural Brain Research, 244, 162-165. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.02.005 pmid: 23416237
[84]	Pattamadilok, C., Morais, J., Ventura, P., & Kolinsky, R.(2007). The locus of the orthographic consistency effect in auditory word recognition: Further evidence from French. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22(5), 700-726. doi: 10.1080/01690960601049628 URL
[85]	Pattamadilok, C., Perre, L., Dufau, S., & Ziegler, J. C.(2009). On-line orthographic influences on spoken language in a semantic task. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(1), 169-179. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2009.21014 pmid: 18476763
[86]	Pelland, M., Orban, P., Dansereau, C., Lepore, F., Bellec, P., & Collignon, O.(2017). State-dependent modulation of functional connectivity in early blind individuals. Neuroimage, 147, 532-541. doi: S1053-8119(16)30778-9 pmid: 28011254
[87]	Perre, L., Midgley, K., & Ziegler, J. C.(2009). When beef primes reef more than leaf: Orthographic information affects phonological priming in spoken word recognition. Psychophysiology, 46(4), 739-746. doi: 10.1111/psyp.2009.46.issue-4 URL
[88]	Piskorska, A.(2008). Concepts reflecting aesthetic judgments in blind children. Relevance Round Table, 97-108.
[89]	Prinz, W.(1997). Perception and action planning. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 9(2), 129-154. doi: 10.1080/713752551 URL
[90]	Qu, Q., & Damian, M. F.(2017). Orthographic effects in spoken word recognition: Evidence from Chinese. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(3), 901-906. doi: 10.3758/s13423-016-1164-9 URL
[91]	Raz, N., Striem, E., Pundak, G., Orlov, T., & Zohary, E.(2007). Superior serial memory in the blind: A case of cognitive compensatory adjustment. Current Biology, 17(13), 1129-1133. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.05.060 URL
[92]	Reich, L., Szwed, M., Cohen, L., & Amedi, A.(2011). A ventral visual stream reading center independent of visual experience. Current Biology, 21(5), 363-368. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.040 pmid: 21333539
[93]	Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L.(2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 169-192. pmid: 15217330
[94]	Robbins, P., & Aydede, M.(Eds.). (2008). The Cambridge handbook of situated cognition. Cambridge University Press.
[95]	Rosel, J., Caballer, A., Jara, P., & Oliver, J. C.(2005). Verbalism in the narrative language of children who are blind and sighted. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 99(7), 413-425.
[96]	Röder, B., Demuth, L., Streb, J., & Rösler, F.(2003). Semantic and morpho-syntactic priming in auditory word recognition in congenitally blind adults. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18(1), 1-20.
[97]	Röder, B., & Rösler, F.(2003). Memory for environmental sounds in sighted, congenitally blind and late blind adults: Evidence for cross-modal compensation. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 50(1-2), 27-39. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(03)00119-3 URL
[98]	Röder, B., Rösler, F., & Neville, H. J.(2001). Auditory memory in congenitally blind adults: A behavioral- electrophysiological investigation. Cognitive Brain Research, 11(2), 289-303. pmid: 11275490
[99]	Sadato, N., Pascual-Leone, A., Grafman, J., Ibanez, V., Deiber, M. P., Dold, G., & Hallett, M.(1996). Activation of the primary visual cortex by Braille reading in blind subjects. Nature, 380(6574), 526-528. doi: 10.1038/380526a0 URL
[100]	Saysani, A., Corballis, M. C., & Corballis, P. M.(2018). Colour envisioned: Concepts of colour in the blind and sighted. Visual Cognition, 26(5), 382-392. doi: 10.1080/13506285.2018.1465148 URL
[101]	Schild, U., & Friedrich, C. K.(2018). What determines the speed of speech recognition? Evidence from congenitally blind adults. Neuropsychologia, 112, 116-124. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.03.002 URL
[102]	Seidenberg, M. S., & Tanenhaus, M. K.(1979). Orthographic effects on rhyme monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Learning and Memory, 5(6), 546-554. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.5.6.546 URL
[103]	Shepard, R. N., & Cooper, L. A.(1992). Representation of colors in the blind, color-blind, and normally sighted. Psychological Science, 3(2), 97-104. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00006.x URL
[104]	Sigalov, N., Maidenbaum, S., & Amedi, A.(2016). Reading in the dark: Neural correlates and cross-modal plasticity for learning to read entire words without visual experience. Neuropsychologia, 83, 149-160. doi: S0028-3932(15)30224-4 pmid: 26577136
[105]	Simmons, W. K., Ramjee, V., Beauchamp, M. S., McRae, K., Martin, A., & Barsalou, L. W.(2007). A common neural substrate for perceiving and knowing about color. Neuropsychologia, 45(12), 2802-2810. pmid: 17575989
[106]	Smith, E. R., & Semin, G. R.(2004). Socially situated cognition: Cognition in its social context. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 53-117.
[107]	Smith, L. B.(2005). Cognition as a dynamic system: Principles from embodiment. Developmental Review, 25(3-4), 278-298.
[108]	Smits, B. W., & Mommers, M. J.(1976). Differences between blind and sighted children on WISC verbal subtests. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 70(6), 240-246.
[109]	Striem-Amit, E., Wang, X. Y., Bi, Y. C., & Caramazza, A.(2018). Neural representation of visual concepts in people born blind. Nature Communications, 9(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1038/s41467-017-02088-w URL
[110]	Sumby, W. H., & Pollack, I.(1954). Visual contribution to speech intelligibility in noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 26(2), 212-215. doi: 10.1121/1.1907309 URL
[111]	Summerfield, Q.(1992). Lipreading and audio-visual speech perception. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 335(1273), 71-78. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1992.0009 URL
[112]	Taft, M., Castles, A., Davis, C., Lazendic, G., & Nguyen-Hoan, M.(2008). Automatic activation of orthography in spoken word recognition: Pseudohomograph priming. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(2), 366-379. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2007.11.002 URL
[113]	Tillman, M. H., & Bashaw, W. L.(1968). Multivariate analysis of the WISC scales for blind and sighted children. Psychological Reports, 23(2), 523-526. pmid: 5698798
[114]	Ventura, P., Kolinsky, R., Pattamadilok, C., & Morais, J.(2008). The developmental turnpoint of orthographic consistency effects in speech recognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 100(2), 135-145. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2008.01.003 pmid: 18328498
[115]	Ventura, P., Morais, J., Pattamadilok, C., & Kolinsky, R.(2004). The locus of the orthographic consistency effect in auditory word recognition. Language and Cognitive processes, 19(1), 57-95. doi: 10.1080/01690960344000134 URL
[116]	Vinter, A., Fernandes, V., Orlandi, O., & Morgan, P.(2013). Verbal definitions of familiar objects in blind children reflect their peculiar perceptual experience. Child: Care, Health and Development, 39(6), 856-863.
[117]	Wan, C. Y., Wood, A. G., Reutens, D. C., & Wilson, S. J.(2010). Early but not late-blindness leads to enhanced auditory perception. Neuropsychologia, 48(1), 344-348. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.08.016 URL
[118]	Wang, D. W., Qin, W., Liu, Y., Zhang, Y. T., Jiang, T. Z., & Yu, C. S.(2014). Altered resting-state network connectivity in congenital blind. Human Brain Mapping, 35(6), 2573-2581. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22350 URL
[119]	Wang, X. Y., Men, W. W., Gao, J. H., Caramazza, A., & Bi, Y. C.(2020). Two forms of knowledge representations in the human brain. Neuron, 107(2), 383-393. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.04.010 URL
[120]	Watkins, K. E., Cowey, A., Alexander, I., Filippini, N., Kennedy, J. M., Smith, S. M., ... Bridge, H.(2012). Language networks in anophthalmia: Maintained hierarchy of processing in ‘visual' cortex. Brain, 135(5), 1566-1577. doi: 10.1093/brain/aws067 URL
[121]	Withagen, A., Kappers, A. M., Vervloed, M. P., Knoors, H., & Verhoeven, L.(2013). Short-term memory and working memory in blind versus sighted children. Research in developmental disabilities, 34(7), 2161-2172. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2013.03.028 pmid: 23643769
[122]	Yeh, W., & Barsalou, L. W.(2006). The situated nature of concepts. The American Journal of Psychology, 119(3), 349-384. doi: 10.2307/20445349 URL
[123]	Yehia, H., Rubin, P., & Vatikiotis-Bateson, E.(1998). Quantitative association of vocal-tract and facial behavior. Speech Communication, 26(1-2), 23-43. doi: 10.1016/S0167-6393(98)00046-6 URL
[124]	Ziegler, J. C., Petrova, A., & Ferrand, L.(2008). Feedback consistency effects in visual and auditory word recognition: Where do we stand after more than a decade?. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(3), 643-661.
[125]	Zou, L., Desroches, A. S., Liu, Y., Xia, Z., & Shu, H.(2012). Orthographic facilitation in Chinese spoken word recognition: An ERP study. Brain and Language, 123(3), 164-173. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2012.09.006 URL