职场孤独感的形成原因与作用机理：基于调节匹配理论视角

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2022.01463

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

随着组织广泛的信息技术运用、工作强度增加,员工之间面对面的、真诚的社交开始呈下降趋势。职场孤独感成了困扰员工的普遍问题,引起了企业管理实践界高度重视。通过综述已有文献,本文指出过往研究虽揭示了职场孤独感带来的消极影响效应并有效提高了组织对职场孤独问题的关注度,但尚未系统回答“如何预防与应对职场孤独感”。为了引导员工对职场孤独感的科学应对,本文认为有必要将员工视为能动的主角而非被动的承受者,并探讨职场孤独感与员工应对行为的关系,为如何应对职场孤独感提供建设性对策。除此之外,为了更好地预防与遏制职场孤独感,有必要系统性地探讨职场孤独感的形成原因。综合过往研究,本文发现职场孤独感区别于其他消极情绪的核心在于：职场孤独感源自于高质量职场人际关系的缺失。与此观点对应的是,Wright和Silard （2021）认为当员工实际的职场人际关系未达到预期水平,员工会认为职场人际关系存在缺陷,产生孤独的体验。Wright和Silard （2021）的观点反映了职场孤独感是一种员工未实现期望社交目标而导致的心理体验。循此逻辑,本文采用与目标实现过程相关的调节匹配理论来解释职场孤独感的产生原因和影响机制,为预防和应对职场孤独感提供对策。以调节匹配理论为框架,本项目拟解决三个问题：（1）领导与下属的调节焦点（不）匹配如何通过影响领导成员交换,进而影响职场孤独感;（2）员工与团队的调节焦点（不）匹配如何通过影响团队成员交换,进而影响职场孤独感;（3）员工如何依据不同的团队调节氛围来选择社交应对策略,以及社交应对策略对员工绩效的影响。通过新颖的多项式回归分析与曲面响应分析方法,本文力求重构传统的职场孤独感的研究思路,为职场孤独感的产生机制提供新的研究视角。除此之外,本文首次将调节匹配理论引入职场孤独感的研究,系统性地分析了职场孤独感的产生和应对,呈现了职场孤独感现象在组织中的动态演化的过程与机制。

关键词: 职场孤独感,调节焦点,调节匹配理论,职场人际关系,社交行为

Abstract:

With the use of information technology and increased work intensity, employees have less frequent face-to-face and sincere social contact with coworkers; thus, workplace loneliness has become a common problem for employees, which has attracted attention from management practitioners in organizations. Our literature review of workplace loneliness studies suggests that most previous studies have revealed the negative outcomes of workplace loneliness, thus highlighting the importance of focusing on this issue. However, based on the existing literature, we only have a vague understanding of how to prevent and cope with workplace loneliness. To guide employees to cope with workplace loneliness properly, we believe it is necessary to focus on how employees proactively cope with workplace loneliness rather than simply treating them as passive recipients of negative feelings. Understanding how employees cope with workplace loneliness will help propose constructive suggestions for managing it. In addition, to uncovering employees’ coping behaviors related to workplace loneliness, we still need to develop systematic thinking about how to prevent the occurrence of workplace loneliness by addressing the causes of workplace loneliness. Previous studies on workplace loneliness suggest that it is a type of negative emotion derived from a deficiency in high-quality workplace interpersonal relationships. Similarly, Wright and Silard (2021) believe that when employees' actual workplace interpersonal relationships fail to reach the expected level, employees will think that there are deficits in workplace interpersonal relationships and experience loneliness. Wright and Silard’s (2021) view reflects that workplace loneliness is a psychological experience caused by employees' failure to achieve expected social goals. Following this logic, this paper applies regulatory fit theory related to individuals’ self-regulation during the goal-chasing process to understand the generation and coping process of workplace loneliness. Based on the tenets of regulatory fit theory, this paper aims to answer three questions: 1) whether the effects of (in)congruence between leader and follower regulatory focus impact workplace loneliness through the mediating effect of leader-member exchange; 2) whether the effects of (in)congruence between employees and team regulatory focus impact workplace loneliness through the mediating effect of team-member exchange; and 3) how employees choose different social behaviors to cope with experienced workplace loneliness based on different team regulatory focus climate and how different social behaviors impact subsequent job performance. By applying polynomial regression and responding surface analysis methods, we hope to contribute to the studies of workplace loneliness and provide novel understanding about the causes of workplace loneliness. In addition, we hope to contribute to the studies of workplace loneliness by introducing regulatory fit theory to the research field. We believe that understanding individuals’ self-regulation during the process of chasing social goals will help enhance dynamic and systematic knowledge about how employees encounter workplace loneliness and how they cope with such feelings under different situations.

Key words: workplace loneliness, regulatory focus, regulatory fit theory, workplace interpersonal relationships, social behavior

中图分类号:

B849:C93

陈晓, 谢彬, 彭坚, 聂琦. (2022). 职场孤独感的形成原因与作用机理：基于调节匹配理论视角. 心理科学进展 , 30(7), 1463-1481.

CHEN Xiao, XIE Bin, PENG Jian, NIE Qi. (2022). The antecedents and consequences of workplace loneliness: A regulatory focus theory perspective. Advances in Psychological Science, 30(7), 1463-1481.

图/表 2

参考文献 111

[1]	韩翼, 廖建桥, 龙立荣. (2007). 雇员工作绩效结构模型构建与实证研究. 管理科学学报, 10(5), 62-77.
[2]	李超虹, 叶茂林. (2015). 工作场所孤独感研究述评. 中国人力资源开发, 11, 29-37.
[3]	李磊, 尚玉钒. (2011). 基于调节焦点理论的领导对下属创造力影响机理研究. 南开管理评论, 14(5), 4-11.
[4]	李磊, 尚玉钒, 席酉民. (2010). 基于调节焦点理论的领导对下属影响机制研究. 外国经济与管理, 32(7), 89-102.
[5]	刘军, 王未, 吴隆增, 许浚, 李锦堃. (2012). 拒绝职场边缘化: 模型与检验. 南开管理评论, 15(1), 84-92.
[6]	毛畅果. (2017). 调节焦点理论: 组织管理中的应用. 心理科学进展, 25(4), 682-690.
[7]	牛莉霞, 刘勇. (2021). 双元领导的双刃剑效应: 矛盾体验与中庸思维的作用. 中国人力资源开发, 38(3), 63-73.
[8]	万广圣, 崔丽娟. (2019). 结盟氛围感知, 组织内信任对职场孤独感的影响: 人格特质的调节. 中国人力资源开发, 36 (4), 30-45.
[9]	王青, 李玲, 王广曦. (2019). 工作场所孤独感对工作投入的影响机制——领导—成员交换和传统性的作用. 现代管理科学, (7), 87-89.
[10]	徐洋洋, 林新奇, 习怡衡. (2019). 孤独的员工何时会更投入: 未来工作自我清晰度和变革型领导的干预效应研究. 南开管理评论 22( 5), 79-89.
[11]	吕惠聪, 温忠麟, 邓家毓, 陈启山. (2015). 职场孤独感的前因与后果. 心理科学, 38(4), 979-986.
[12]	张宏宇, 李文, 郎艺. (2019). 矛盾视角下调节焦点在领导力领域的应用. 心理科学进展, 27(4), 711-725.
[13]	张健东, 张鑫, 国伟. (2021). 道不同, 不相为谋? 上司—下属绩效目标导向匹配对下属创新行为的影响. 中国人力资源开发, 38(06), 110-132
[14]	邹文篪, 刘佳. (2011). 团队中的“我为人人, 人人为我”——团队-成员交换研究述评. 心理科学进展, 19(8), 1193-1204.
[15]	Allison, D. G. (1997). Assessing stress among public school principals in British Columbia. Psychological Reports, 80(3), 1103-1114. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1997.80.3c.1103 URL
[16]	Altaf, A., & Awan, M. A. (2011). Moderating affect of workplace spirituality on the relationship of job overload and job satisfaction. Journal of Business Ethics, 104(1), 93-99.
[17]	Anand, P., & Mishra, S. K. (2021). Linking core self-evaluation and emotional exhaustion with workplace loneliness: Does high LMX make the consequence worse? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 32(10), 2124-2149. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2019.1570308 URL
[18]	Ayazlar, G., & Güzel, B. (2014). The effect of loneliness in the workplace on organizational commitment. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 131, 319-325. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.124 URL
[19]	Beersma, B., Homan, A. C., van Kleef, G. A., & de Dreu, C. K. (2013). Outcome interdependence shapes the effects of prevention focus on team processes and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 121(2), 194-203. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2013.02.003 URL
[20]	Bell, R. A., Roloff, M. E., van Camp, K., & Karol, S. H. (1990). Is it lonely at the top? Career success and personal relationships. Journal of Communication, 40(1), 9-23. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1990.tb02247.x URL
[21]	Beus, J. M., Lucianetti, L., & Arthur Jr, W. (2020). Clash of the climates: Examining the paradoxical effects of climates for promotion and prevention. Personnel Psychology, 73(2), 241-269. doi: 10.1111/peps.12338 URL
[22]	Britton, A. R. (2014). Safety-specific person-environment fit: Relation with safety behaviors, job attitudes, and strain (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Bowling Green State University.
[23]	Bunjak, A., Černe, M., & Wong, S. I. (2019). Leader- follower pessimism (in) congruence and job satisfaction: The role of followers’ identification with a leader. Leadership & Organization Development Journal. 40(3), 381-398.
[24]	Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., & Boomsma, D. I. (2014). Evolutionary mechanisms for loneliness. Cognition & Emotion, 28(1), 3-21.
[25]	Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., Ernst, J. M., Burleson, M., Berntson, G. G., Nouriani, B., & Spiegel, D. (2006). Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(6), 1054-1085. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.007 URL
[26]	Cai, D., Cai, Y., Sun, Y., Xu, R., & Feng, B. (2021). Leader‐follower congruence in need for achievement and work outcomes: The mediating role of leader‐member exchange. Applied Psychology, 70(4), 1492-1511. doi: 10.1111/apps.12286 URL
[27]	Chan, S. H., & Qiu, H. H. (2011). Loneliness, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of migrant workers: Empirical evidence from China. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(05), 1109-1127. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2011.556785 URL
[28]	Chattopadhyay, P., George, E., & Ng, C. K. (2016). Hearts and minds: Integrating regulatory focus and relational demography to explain responses to dissimilarity. Organizational Psychology Review, 6(2), 119-144. doi: 10.1177/2041386615574540 URL
[29]	Cheek, J. M., & Busch, C. M. (1981). The influence of shyness on loneliness in a new situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7(4), 572-577. doi: 10.1177/014616728174008 URL
[30]	Chen, X., Peng, J., Lei, X., & Zou, Y. (2021). Leave or stay with a lonely leader? An investigation into whether, why, and when leader workplace loneliness increases team turnover intentions. Asian Business & Management, 20(2), 280-303.
[31]	Chen, Y., Wen, Z., Peng, J., & Liu, X. (2016). Leader-follower congruence in loneliness, LMX and turnover intention. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 31(4), 864-879. doi: 10.1108/JMP-06-2015-0205 URL
[32]	Chen, Y., Wen, Z., & Ye, M. (2017). Exploring profiles of work regulatory focus: A person-centered approach. Personality and Individual Differences, 116, 16-21. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.019 URL
[33]	Dose, J. J. (1999). The relationship between work values similarity and team-member and leader-member exchange relationships. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 20-32. doi: 10.1037/1089-2699.3.1.20 URL
[34]	Ehrhardt, K., & Ragins, B. R. (2019). Relational attachment at work: A complementary fit perspective on the role of relationships in organizational life. Academy of Management Journal, 62(1), 248-282. doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.0245
[35]	Elliot, A. J., Gable, S. L., & Mapes, R. R. (2006). Approach and avoidance motivation in the social domain. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(3), 378-391. doi: 10.1177/0146167205282153 URL
[36]	Erdil, O., & Ertosun, Ö. G. (2011). The relationship between social climate and loneliness in the workplace and effects on employee well-being. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 24, 505-525.
[37]	Faddegon, K., Scheepers, D., & Ellemers, N. (2008). If we have the will, there will be a way: Regulatory focus as a group identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(5), 880-895. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.483 URL
[38]	Foulk, T. A., de Pater, I. E., Schaerer, M., du Plessis, C., Lee, R., & Erez, A. (2020). It's lonely at the bottom (too): The effects of experienced powerlessness on social closeness and disengagement. Personnel Psychology, 73(2), 363-394. doi: 10.1111/peps.12358 URL
[39]	Galek, K., Flannelly, K. J., Greene, P. B., & Kudler, T. (2011). Burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and social support. Pastoral Psychology, 60, 633-649. doi: 10.1007/s11089-011-0346-7 URL
[40]	Ghadi, M. Y. (2017). The impact of workplace spirituality on voluntary turnover intentions through loneliness in work. Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 33(1), 81-110. doi: 10.1108/JEAS-03-2016-0005 URL
[41]	Guillén, L., & Karelaia, N. (2012). When opposites hurt: Similarity in getting ahead in leader-follower dyads as a predictor of job performance evaluations. European School of Management and Technology Working Paper. No. 11-12 (R1).
[42]	Gumbert, D. E., & Boyd, D. P. (1984). The loneliness of the small business owner. Harvard Business Review, 62(6), 33-38.
[43]	Hamstra, M. R., Sassenberg, K., van Yperen, N. W., & Wisse, B. (2014). Followers feel valued—When leaders' regulatory focus makes leaders exhibit behavior that fits followers' regulatory focus. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 51, 34-40. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.11.003 URL
[44]	Hamstra, M. R., Sassenberg, K., van Yperen, N. W., Wisse, B., & Rietzschel, E. F. (2015). Regulatory fit buffers against disidentification from groups. Motivation Science, 1(3), 184-201. doi: 10.1037/mot0000019 URL
[45]	Hamstra, M. R., van Yperen, N. W., Wisse, B., & Sassenberg, K. (2013). Like or dislike: Intrapersonal regulatory fit affects the intensity of interpersonal evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(4), 726-731. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.03.002 URL
[46]	Hawkley, L. C., Thisted, R. A., Masi, C. M., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). Loneliness predicts increased blood pressure: 5-year cross-lagged analyses in middle-aged and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 25(1), 132-141. doi: 10.1037/a0017805 pmid: 20230134
[47]	Hazlett, A., Molden, D. C., & Sackett, A. M. (2011). Hoping for the best or preparing for the worst? Regulatory focus and preferences for optimism and pessimism in predicting personal outcomes. Social Cognition, 29(1), 74-96. doi: 10.1521/soco.2011.29.1.74 URL
[48]	Higgins, E. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 1-46.
[49]	Higgins, E. T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1217-1230. pmid: 11280936
[50]	Hood, M., Creed, P. A., & Mills, B. J. (2018). Loneliness and online friendships in emerging adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 133, 96-102. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.045 URL
[51]	Howard, M. P., & Mallory, B. J. (2008). Perceptions of isolation among high school principals. Journal of Women in Educational Leadership, 6, 7-27.
[52]	Jansen, K. J., & Kristof-Brown, A. L. (2005). Marching to the beat of a different drummer: Examining the impact of pacing congruence. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 93-105. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.005 URL
[53]	Johnson, R. E., Lin, S.-H., Kark, R., van Dijk, D., King, D. D., & Esformes, E. (2017). Consequences of regulatory fit for leader-follower relationship quality and commitment. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 90(3), 379-406. doi: 10.1111/joop.12176 URL
[54]	Kark, R., Katz-Navon, T., & Delegach, M. (2015). The dual effects of leading for safety: The mediating role of employee regulatory focus. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(5), 1332-1348. doi: 10.1037/a0038818 URL
[55]	Kark, R. & van-Dijk, D. (2008). Birds of a feather flock together:The relationship between leader-follower self-regulation congruency. In G.B. Graen and J.A. Graen (Eds.), Knowledge driven corporation: A discontinuous model. LMX Leadership: The Series (Vol. VI, pp. 181-209). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
[56]	Kark, R., & van Dijk, D. (2019). Keep your head in the clouds and your feet on the ground: A multifocal review of leadership-followership self-regulatory focus. Academy of Management Annals, 13(2), 509-546. doi: 10.5465/annals.2017.0134 URL
[57]	Kark, R., van Dijk, D., & Vashdi, D. R. (2018). Motivated or demotivated to be creative: The role of self‐regulatory focus in transformational and transactional leadership processes. Applied Psychology, 67(1), 186-224. doi: 10.1111/apps.12122 URL
[58]	Kuriakose, V., Sreejesh, S., Wilson, P. R., & Anusree, M. R. (2019). The differential association of workplace conflicts on employee well-being. International Journal of Conflict Management. 30(5), 680-705. doi: 10.1108/IJCMA-05-2018-0063 URL
[59]	Lam, L. W., & Lau, D. C. (2012). Feeling lonely at work: Investigating the consequences of unsatisfactory workplace relationships. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(20), 4265-4282. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2012.665070 URL
[60]	Levine, J. M., Higgins, E. T., & Choi, H.-S. (2000). Development of strategic norms in groups. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82(1), 88-101. doi: 10.1006/obhd.2000.2889 URL
[61]	Li, A. N., Liao, H., Tangirala, S., & Firth, B. M. (2017). The content of the message matters: The differential effects of promotive and prohibitive team voice on team productivity and safety performance gains. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(8), 1259-1270. doi: 10.1037/apl0000215 URL
[62]	Liu, H., & Yao, M. (2019). Regulatory focus profiles among Chinese pre-adolescents and adolescents and their relationship to personality and psychological outcomes. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(6), 1807-1824. doi: 10.1007/s10902-018-0025-9 URL
[63]	Liu, R.-D., Bian, R., Gao, Q., Ding, Y., & Zhang, J. (2016). I like you more when your behaviors fit my motivational orientation: The effect of interpersonal regulatory fit on interpersonal evaluation. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 166-173. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.002 URL
[64]	Li, Y., Mao, J.-Y., & Xu, M. (2019, July). Need to belong under attack: Workplace ostracism brings workplace loneliness and damaged performance. In Academy of Management Proceedings (Vol. 2019, No. 1, p. 16709). Briarcliff Manor, NY 10510: Academy of Management.
[65]	Lucas, G. M., Knowles, M. L., Gardner, W. L., Molden, D. C., & Jefferis, V. E. (2010). Increasing social engagement among lonely individuals: The role of acceptance cues and promotion motivations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(10), 1346-1359. doi: 10.1177/0146167210382662 pmid: 20817823
[66]	Mohapatra, M., Madan, P., & Srivastava, S. (2020, in press). Loneliness at Work: Its Consequences and Role of Moderators. Global Business Review.
[67]	Molden, D. C., Lucas, G. M., Gardner, W. L., Dean, K., & Knowles, M. L. (2009). Motivations for prevention or promotion following social exclusion: Being rejected versus being ignored. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 415-431. doi: 10.1037/a0012958 URL
[68]	Mushtaq, R., Shoib, S., Shah, T., & Mushtaq, S. (2014). Relationship between loneliness, psychiatric disorders, and physical health? A review on the psychological aspects of loneliness. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 8(9), WE01-WE04.
[69]	Neubert, M. J., Wu, C., & Roberts, J. A. (2013). The influence of ethical leadership and regulatory focus on employee outcomes. Business Ethics Quarterly, 23(2), 269-296. doi: 10.5840/beq201323217 URL
[70]	Owens, B. P., & Hekman, D. R. (2016). How does leader humility influence team performance? Exploring the mechanisms of contagion and collective promotion focus. Academy of Management Journal, 59(3), 1088-1111. doi: 10.5465/amj.2013.0660 URL
[71]	Ozcelik, H., & Barsade, S. (2011, Work lonelinesJanuary). s and employee performance. In Academy of management proceedings (Vol. 2011, No. 1, pp. 1-6). Briarcliff Manor, NY 10510: Academy of Management.
[72]	Ozcelik, H., & Barsade, S. G. (2018). No employee an island: Workplace loneliness and job performance. Academy of Management Journal, 61(6), 2343-2366. doi: 10.5465/amj.2015.1066 URL
[73]	Page, R. M., & Cole, G. E. (1991). Demographic predictors of self-reported loneliness in adults. Psychological Reports, 68(3), 939-945. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1991.68.3.939 URL
[74]	Parent-Rocheleau, X., Bentein, K., Simard, G., & Tremblay, M. (2021). Leader-follower (dis) similarity in optimism: Its effect on followers’ role conflict, vigor and performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 36(2), 211-224. doi: 10.1007/s10869-019-09660-9 URL
[75]	Park, J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2015). Social exclusion causes a shift toward prevention motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 153-159. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.09.011 URL
[76]	Peng, J., Chen, Y., Xia, Y., & Ran, Y. (2017). Workplace loneliness, leader-member exchange and creativity: The cross-level moderating role of leader compassion. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, 510-515. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.020 URL
[77]	Perlman, D., & Purushottam, V. (1987). The revelation of loneliness. In H. Mohamadreza & R. Crandall (Eds.), Loneliness: Theory, research and applications [Special Issue]. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2, 63-67.
[78]	Perlman, D., & Peplau, L. A. (1981). Toward a social psychology of loneliness. Personal Relationships, 3, 31-56.
[79]	Pierro, A., Sheveland, A., Livi, S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2015). Person-group fit on the need for cognitive closure as a predictor of job performance, and the mediating role of group identification. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 19(2), 77-90. doi: 10.1037/gdn0000022 URL
[80]	Promsri, C. (2018). Relationship between loneliness in the workplace and deviant work behaviors: Evidence from a Thai Government Bank. Social Science and Humanities Journal, 2(3), 352-357.
[81]	Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., Harris, R., van Roekel, E., Lodder, G., Bangee, M.,... Verhagen, M. (2015). Loneliness across the life span. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 250-264. doi: 10.1177/1745691615568999 pmid: 25910393
[82]	Quick, J. C., Gavin, J. H., Cooper, C. L., & Quick, J. D. (2000). Executive health: Building strength, managing risks. The Academy of Management Executive, 14(2), 34-44.
[83]	Rietzschel, E. F. (2011). Collective regulatory focus predicts specific aspects of team innovation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14(3), 337-345.
[84]	Righetti, F., Finkenauer, C., & Rusbult, C. (2011). The benefits of interpersonal regulatory fit for individual goal pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(4), 720-736. doi: 10.1037/a0023592 URL
[85]	Rokach, A. (2013) Loneliness updated: Recent research on loneliness and how it affects our lives. Routledge: Abingdon-on-Thames, UK.
[86]	Rokach, A., & Brock, H. (1998). Coping with loneliness. The Journal of Psychology, 132(1), 107-127. doi: 10.1080/00223989809599269 URL
[87]	Saklofske, D. H., Yackulic, R. A., & Kelly, I. W. (1986). Personality and loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 7(6), 899-901. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(86)90091-7 URL
[88]	Sassenberg, K., & Scholl, A. (2013). If I can do it my way… The influence of regulatory focus on job-related values and job attraction. Journal of Economic Psychology, 38, 58-70. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2012.09.003 URL
[89]	Seong, J. Y., & Choi, J. N. (2014). Effects of group-level fit on group conflict and performance: The initiating role of leader positive affect. Group & Organization Management, 39(2), 190-212.
[90]	Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2007). Adult attachment strategies and the regulation of emotion. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 446-465). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
[91]	Shin, Y., Kim, M., Choi, J. N., & Lee, S.-H. (2016). Does team culture matter? Roles of team culture and collective regulatory focus in team task and creative performance. Group & Organization Management, 41(2), 232-265.
[92]	Shin, Y., Kim, M. S., Choi, J. N., Kim, M., & Oh, W.-K. (2017). Does leader-follower regulatory fit matter? The role of regulatory fit in followers’ organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Management, 43(4), 1211-1233. doi: 10.1177/0149206314546867 URL
[93]	Silman, F., & Dogan, T. (2013). Social intelligence as a predictor of loneliness in the workplace. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 16: 1-6.
[94]	Smith, W. K., & Lewis, M. W. (2011). Toward a theory of paradox: A dynamic equilibrium model of organizing. Academy of Management Review, 36(2), 381-403.
[95]	Spiegel, S., Grant‐Pillow, H., & Higgins, E. T. (2004). How regulatory fit enhances motivational strength during goal pursuit. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34(1), 39-54. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.180 URL
[96]	Spithoven, A. W., Bijttebier, P., & Goossens, L. (2017). It is all in their mind: A review on information processing bias in lonely individuals. Clinical Psychology Review, 58, 97-114. doi: S0272-7358(16)30333-6 pmid: 29102150
[97]	Tripathi, N., Miron-Spektor, E., & Lewis, M. W. (2018, July). Mixed blessings: Dynamic impact of paradoxical leader behavior on subordinate’ engagement and CWB. In Academy of Management Proceedings (Vol. 2018, No. 1, p. 10654). Briarcliff Manor, NY 10510: Academy of Management.
[98]	van der Vegt, G. S. (2002). Effects of attitude dissimilarity and time on social integration: A longitudinal panel study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75(4), 439-452. doi: 10.1348/096317902321119592 URL
[99]	van Dijk, D., & Kluger, A. N. (2011). Task type as a moderator of positive/negative feedback effects on motivation and performance: A regulatory focus perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(8), 1084-1105. doi: 10.1002/job.725 URL
[100]	van Scotter, J. R., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1996). Interpersonal facilitation and job dedication as separate facets of contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(5), 525-531. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.81.5.525 URL
[101]	Vaughn, L. A., Childs, K. E., Maschinski, C., Paul Niño, N., & Ellsworth, R. (2010). Regulatory fit, processing fluency, and narrative persuasion. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(12), 1181-1192. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00325.x URL
[102]	Waytz, A., Chou, E. Y., Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2015). Not so lonely at the top: The relationship between power and loneliness. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 130, 69-78. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.06.002 URL
[103]	Wilt, J. A., Bleidorn, W., & Revelle, W. (2017). Velocity explains the links between personality states and affect. Journal of Research in Personality, 69, 86-95. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2016.06.008 URL
[104]	Winterheld, H. A., & Simpson, J. A. (2011). Seeking security or growth: A regulatory focus perspective on motivations in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5), 935-954. doi: 10.1037/a0025012 pmid: 21843014
[105]	Wright, S. (2012). Is it lonely at the top? An empirical study of managers’ and nonmanagers’ loneliness in organizations. The Journal of Psychology, 146(1-2), 47-60. doi: 10.1080/00223980.2012.629501 URL
[106]	Wright, S. L. (2005). Loneliness in the workplace (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Canterbury.
[107]	Wright, S., & Silard, A. (2021). Unravelling the antecedents of loneliness in the workplace. Human Relations, 74(7), 1060-1081. doi: 10.1177/0018726720906013 URL
[108]	Yilmaz, E. (2011). An investigation of teachers loneliness in the workplace in terms of human values they possess. African Journal of Business Management, 5(13), 5070-5075.
[109]	Zaal, M. P., van Laar, C., Ståhl, T., Ellemers, N., & Derks, B. (2015). “Self‐promotion”: How regulatory focus affects the pursuit of self‐interest at the expense of the group. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45(5), 587-598. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2109 URL
[110]	Zhang, Z., Wang, M. O., & Shi, J. (2012). Leader-follower congruence in proactive personality and work outcomes: The mediating role of leader-member exchange. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 111-130. doi: 10.5465/amj.2009.0865 URL
[111]	Zhao, G., Chiu, H. H., Jiao, H., Cheng, M. Y., & Chen, Y. (2021). The Effect of Person-Team Conscientiousness Fit on Knowledge Sharing: The Moderating Role of Internal Team Environment. Group & Organization Management. 46(3), 498-529.