职场地位:多面性及其动态影响机制

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2020.00904

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

职场地位是职场人士竞相争取的宝贵资源, 不仅有助于个体获得影响力, 改善个体的自我认知和行为表现, 而且能促进组织的有效运转。然而, 在组织管理领域的研究中, 职场地位并没有获得应有的“地位”。本研究拟基于4个时间点的纵向数据, 采用潜增长模型分析方法, 探讨职场地位随着时间推移的动态变化规律以及对员工态度和行为的动态影响机制, 并揭示职场地位双面性的形成机制。本研究不仅系统探讨职场地位的动态性、双面性等多面性特征, 而且为组织管理实践防范职场地位的阴暗面提供丰富的理论依据。

关键词: 职场地位, 地位动态性, 追踪研究, 社会认同理论, 情绪评价理论

Abstract:

Workplace status is a valuable resource for employees, which not only helps individuals gain influence on others, improves their self-cognition and work behaviors, but also promotes organizational effectiveness. However, workplace status has not been given the right “status” in the past research of organizational management. Using 4-wave longitudinal data about workplace status and latent growth model analysis method, this research explores the dynamic influence mechanism of workplace status on employees’ attitudes and behaviors and the formation mechanism of double sides of workplace status over time. This research focuses on the multifaceted characteristics of workplace status, such as dynamic changes and double sides, and also provides rich theoretical basis for guarding against the dark side of workplace status in organizational management practices.

Key words: workplace status, status dynamics, longitudinal study, social identity theory, emotional evaluation theory

中图分类号:

B849:C93

王碧英, 高日光, 舒夏俊. (2020). 职场地位:多面性及其动态影响机制. 心理科学进展 , 28(6), 904-923.

WANG Biying, GAO Riguang, SHU Xiajun. (2020). Workplace status: The multifaceted characteristics and dynamic influence mechanism. Advances in Psychological Science, 28(6), 904-923.

图/表 5

图1 职场地位与相关概念的异同

图2 本研究的理论框架与研究模型

图3 研究1的动态研究模型示意图

图4 地位改变的概念模型

图5 地位改变的动态影响模型注:图中X代表研究模型中的自变量, 即地位提升/损失, M代表中介变量, 即情绪反应, Y代表因变量, 即态度和行为结果

参考文献 131

[1]	杜建政, 夏冰丽 . (2009). 急性应激障碍(ASD)研究述评. 心理科学进展, 17(03), 482-488.
[2]	段锦云, 卢志巍, 沈彦晗 . (2015). 组织中的权力: 概念、理论和效应. 心理科学进展, 23(6), 1070-1078.
[3]	胡琼晶, 谢小云 . (2015). 团队成员地位与知识分享行为: 基于动机的视角. 心理学报, 47(4), 545-554.
[4]	卫旭华, 邵建平, 王傲晨, 江楠 . (2017). 组织成员地位的形成及影响机制. 心理科学进展, 25(11), 1972-1981.
[5]	胥彦, 李超平 .(2019). 追踪研究在组织行为学中的应用. 心理科学进展, 27(4), 600-610.
[6]	Adkins, C. L . (1995). Previous work experience and organizational socialization: A longitudinal examination. Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 839-862.
[7]	Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G., & Ickovics, J. R . (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, white women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 586-592. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586 URL
[8]	Anderson, C., Hildreth, J. A. D., & Howland, L . (2015). Is the desire for status a fundamental human motive? A review of the empirical literature. Psychological Bulletin, 141(3), 574-601. doi: 10.1037/a0038781 URL
[9]	Anderson, C., John, O. P., Keltner, D., & Kring, A. M . (2001). Who attains social status? Effects of personality and physical attractiveness in social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 116-132. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.116 URL
[10]	Anderson, C., & Kilduff, G. J . (2009). Why do dominant personalities attain influence in face-to-face groups? The competence-signaling effects of trait dominance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 491-503. doi: 10.1037/a0014201 URL
[11]	Anderson, C., Kraus, M. W., Galinsky, A. D., & Keltner, D . (2012). The local-ladder effect: Social status and subjective well-being. Psychological Science, 23(7), 764-771. doi: 10.1177/0956797611434537 URL
[12]	Anderson, C., Srivastava, S., Beer, J. S., Spataro, S. E., & Chatman, J. A . (2006). Knowing your place: Self-perceptions of status in face-to-face groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(6), 1094-1110. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.1094 URL
[13]	Ashforth, B. E., & Saks, A. M . (1995). Work-role transitions: A longitudinal examination of the Nicholson model. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 68(2), 157-175. doi: 10.1111/joop.1995.68.issue-2 URL
[14]	Barclay, L. J., Skarlicki, D. P., & Pugh, S. D . (2005). Exploring the role of emotions in injustice perceptions and retaliation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 629-643. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.629 URL
[15]	Barkow, J. H . (1989). The elastic between genes and culture. Ethology and Sociobiology, 10(1-3), 111-129.
[16]	Bauer, T. N., & Green, S. G . (1994). Effect of newcomer involvement in work-related activities: A longitudinal study of socialization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(2), 211-223. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.79.2.211 URL
[17]	Bendersky, C., & Pai, J . (2018). Status dynamics. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 183-199. doi: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104602 URL
[18]	Bendersky, C., & Shah, N. P . (2012). The cost of status enhancement: Performance effects of individuals' status mobility in task groups. Organization Science, 23(2), 299-596. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1110.0668 URL
[19]	Bendersky, C., & Shah, N. P . (2013). The downfall of extraverts and rise of neurotics: The dynamic process of status allocation in task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 56(2), 387-406. doi: 10.5465/amj.2011.0316 URL
[20]	Berger, J., Conner, T. L., & Fisek, M. H . ( Eds.). (1974). Expectation states theory: A theoretical research program. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop.
[21]	Berger, J., & Zelditch, M . (1985). Status, Rewards, and Influence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
[22]	Bettencourt, B. A., & Miller, N . (1996). Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 119(3), 422-447. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.3.422 URL
[23]	Blader, S. L., & Chen, Y. R . (2012). Differentiating the effects of status and power: A justice perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(5), 994-1014. doi: 10.1037/a0026651 URL
[24]	Blader, S. L., Shirako, A., & Chen, Y.-R . (2016). Looking out from the top: Differential effects of status and power on perspective taking. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(6), 723-737. doi: 10.1177/0146167216636628 URL
[25]	Blau, P. M . (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: Wiley.
[26]	Bledow, R., Schmitt, A., Frese, M., & Kühnel, J . (2011). The affective shift model of work engagement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(6), 1246-1257. doi: 10.1037/a0024532 URL
[27]	Bothner, M. S., Kang, J., & Stuart, T. E . (2007). Competitive crowding and risk taking in a tournament: Evidence from NASCAR racing. Administrative Science Quarterly, 52( 2), 208-247.
[28]	Bothner, M. S., Kim, Y.-K., & Smith, E. B . (2012). How does status affect performance? Status as an asset vs. status as a liability in the PGA and NASCAR. Organization Science, 23(2), 416-433. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1110.0679 URL
[29]	Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E . (2009). Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 183-204. doi: 10.1037/a0013965 URL
[30]	Case, C. R., & Maner, J. K . (2014). Divide and conquer: When and why leaders undermine the cohesive fabric of their group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(6), 1033-1050. doi: 10.1037/a0038201 URL
[31]	Chao, G. T., O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Wolf, S., Klein, H. J., & Gardner, P. D . (1994). Organizational socialization: Its content and consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(5), 730-743. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.79.5.730 URL
[32]	Chen, Y., Peterson, R. S., Phillips, D. J., Podolny, J. M., & Ridgeway, C. L . (2012). Introduction to the special issue: Bringing status to the table-attaining, maintaining, and experiencing status in organizations and markets. Organization Science, 23(2), 299-307. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1110.0668 URL
[33]	Clark, A. E., Frijters, P., & Shields, M. A . (2008). Relative income, happiness and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(1), 95-144. doi: 10.1257/jel.46.1.95 URL
[34]	Connelly, C. E., Zweig, D., Webster, J., & Trougakos, J. P . (2012). Knowledge hiding in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(1), 64-88. doi: 10.1002/job.737 URL
[35]	de Waal-Andrews, W., Gregg, A. P., & Lammers, J . (2015). When status is grabbed and when status is granted: Getting ahead in dominance and prestige hierarchies. British Journal of Social Psychology, 54(3), 445-464. doi: 10.1111/bjso.2015.54.issue-3 URL
[36]	Djurdjevic, E., Stoverink, A. C., Klotz, A. C., Koopman, J., da Motta Veiga, S. P., Yam, K. C., & Chiang, J. T.-J . (2017). Workplace status: The development and validation of a scale. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(7), 1124-1147. doi: 10.1037/apl0000202 URL
[37]	Duffy, M. K., Ganster, D. C., & Pagon, M . (2002). Social undermining in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 45(2), 331-351.
[38]	Elliot, A. J . (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 169-189. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3 URL
[39]	Elliot, A. J . (2006). The hierarchical model of approach-avoidance motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 30(2), 111-116. doi: 10.1007/s11031-006-9028-7 URL
[40]	Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M . (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 804-818. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.804 URL
[41]	Ellsworth, P. C., & Scherer, K. R . (2003) . Appraisal processes in emotion. In R. J. Davidson, H. Goldsmith, & K. R. Scherer (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 572-595). New York, US: Oxford University Press.
[42]	Ertug, G., & Castellucci, F . (2013). Getting what you need: How reputation and status affect team performance, hiring, and salaries in the NBA. Academy of Management Journal, 56(2), 407-431. doi: 10.5465/amj.2010.1084 URL
[43]	Falomir-Pichastor, J. M . (2011). Regulatory focus, self-directed emotions, and intergroup attitudes. International Review of Social Psychology, 24(2), 77-104.
[44]	Fan, E. T., & Gruenfeld, D. H . (1998). When needs outweigh desires: The effects of resource interdependence and reward interdependence on group problem solving. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 20(1), 45-56.
[45]	Ferris, D. L., Johnson, R. E., Rosen, C. C., Djurdjevic, E., Chang, C. H., & Tan, J. A . (2013). When is success not satisfying? Integrating regulatory focus and approach/avoidance motivation theories to explain the relation between core self-evaluation and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 342-353. doi: 10.1037/a0029776 URL
[46]	Ferris, D. L., Rosen, C. R., Johnson, R. E., Brown, D. J., Risavy, S. D., & Heller, D . (2011). Approach or avoidance (or both?): Integrating core self-evaluations within an approach/avoidance framework. Personnel Psychology, 64(1), 137-161. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01204.x URL
[47]	Ferris, G. R., Blass, R., Douglas, C., Kolodinsky, R. W., & Treadway, D. C . (2003). Personal reputation in organizations. In J. Greenberg (Ed.), Organizational behavior: The state of the science (2nd ed.) ( pp. 211-246). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[48]	Fiske, S. T. (2010). Interpersonal stratification: Status, power, and subordination. In: Fiske, S., Gilbert, D., Lindzey, G. (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th ed.) (pp. 941-982). New York, US: Wiley.
[49]	Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E . (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). New York, US: McGraw-Hill.
[50]	Flynn, F. J., Reagans, R. E., Amanatullah, E. T., & Ames, D. R . (2006). Helping one’s way to the top: Self-monitors achieve status by helping others and knowing who helps whom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(6), 1123-1137. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.1123 URL
[51]	Ford, M. T., Wang, Y., Jin, J., & Eisenberger, R . (2018). Chronic and episodic anger and gratitude toward the organization: Relationships with organizational and supervisor supportiveness and extra-role behavior. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23(2), 175-187. doi: 10.1037/ocp0000075 URL
[52]	Frank, R. H. (1985). Choosing the right pond-human behavior and the quest for status. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
[53]	Gecas, V., & Seff, M. A . (1989). Social class, occupational conditions, and self-esteem. Sociological Perspectives, 32(3), 353-364. doi: 10.2307/1389122 URL
[54]	Gilbert, P., & Miles, J. N. V . (2000). Sensitivity to social putdown: It’s relationship to perceptions of social rank, shame, social anxiety, depression, anger and self-other blame. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(4), 757-774.
[55]	Graffin, S. D., Bundy, J., Porac, J. F., Wade, J. B., & Quinn, D. P . (2013). Falls from grace and the hazards of high status: The 2009 British MP expense scandal and its impact on parliamentary elites. Administrative Science Quarterly, 58(3), 313-345. doi: 10.1177/0001839213497011 URL
[56]	Grant, A. M., & Ashford, S. J . (2008). The dynamics of proactivity at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 28, 3-34. doi: 10.1016/j.riob.2008.04.002 URL
[57]	Griffin, M. A., Neal, A., & Parker, S. K . (2007). A new model of work role performance: Positive behavior in uncertain and interdependent contexts. Academy of Management Journal, 50(2), 327-347. doi: 10.5465/amj.2007.24634438 URL
[58]	Gruenewald, T. L., Kemeny, M. E., Aziz, N., & Fahey, J. L . (2004). Acute threat to the social self: Shame, social self-esteem, and cortisol activity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66(6), 915-924. doi: 10.1097/01.psy.0000143639.61693.ef URL
[59]	Gruenfeld, D. H., Tiedens,, L. Z . (2010). Organizational preferences and their consequences. In S.T., Fiske, D. T., Gilbert, G., Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology ( pp. 268-316). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
[60]	Haslam, S. A., & Ellemers, N . (2005). Social identity in industrial and organizational psychology: Concepts, controversies and contributions. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 20, 39-118.
[61]	Hays, N. A., & Bendersky, C . (2015). Not all inequality is created equal: Effects of status versus power hierarchies on competition for upward mobility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(6), 867-882.
[62]	Hays, N. A., & Blader, S. L . (2017). To give or not to give? Interactive effects of status and legitimacy on generosity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(1), 17-38. doi: 10.1037/pspi0000067 URL
[63]	Heider, F . (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York, US: Wiley.
[64]	Henrich, J., & Gil-White, F. J . (2001). The Evolution of Prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22(3), 165-196. doi: 10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00071-4 URL
[65]	Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J . (2000). Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 121-140. doi: 10.5465/amr.2000.2791606 URL
[66]	Huberman, B. A., Loch, C. H., & Onculer, A . (2004). Status as a valued resource. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(1), 103-114. doi: 10.1177/019027250406700109 URL
[67]	Jackson, S. E., Schwab, R. L., & Schuler, R. S . (1986). Toward an understanding of the burnout phenomenon. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(4), 630-640. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.4.630 URL
[68]	Janssen, O., & Gao, L . (2015). Supervisory responsiveness and employee self-perceived status and voice behavior. Journal of Management, 41(7), 1854-1872. doi: 10.1177/0149206312471386 URL
[69]	Johnson, C., Dowd, T. J., & Ridgeway, C. L . (2006). Legitimacy as a social process. Annual Review of Sociology, 32(4), 53-78. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123101 URL
[70]	Kelley, H. H . (1973). The processes of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28(2), 107-128.
[71]	Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C . (2003). Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110(2), 265-284. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.265 URL
[72]	Kilduff, G. J., Willer, R., & Anderson, C . (2016). Hierarchy and its discontents: Status disagreement leads to withdrawal of contribution and lower group performance. Organization Science, 27(2), 373-390. doi: 10.1287/orsc.2016.1058 URL
[73]	Korman, A. K . (1976). Hypothesis of work behavior revisited and an extension. Academy of Management Review, 1(1), 50-63. doi: 10.5465/amr.1976.4408762 URL
[74]	Leary, M. T., & Roberts, M. R . (2014). Do peer firms affect corporate financial policy? Journal of Finance, 69(1), 139-178.
[75]	Lerner, J. S., Goldberg, J. H., & Tetlock, P. E . (1998). Sober second thought: The effects of accountability, anger and authoritarianism on attributions of responsibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(6), 563-574. doi: 10.1177/0146167298246001 URL
[76]	Levenson, R. W . (1999). The intrapersonal functions of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 13(5), 481-504. doi: 10.1080/026999399379159 URL
[77]	Livne-Ofer, E., Coyle-Shapiro, J. A-M., & Pearce, J. L . (2019). Eyes wide open: Perceived exploitation and its consequences. Academy of Management Journal, 62(6), 1989-2018.
[78]	Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D . (2008). Social hierarchy: The self-reinforcing nature of power and status. Academy of Management Annals, 2(1), 351-398.
[79]	Malmendier, U., & Tate, G . (2009). Superstar CEOs. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(4), 1593-1638. doi: 10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1593 URL
[80]	Marr, J. G., & Thau, S . (2014). Falling from great (and not so great) heights: How initial status position influences performance after status loss. Academy of Management Journal, 57(1), 223-248. doi: 10.5465/amj.2011.0909 URL
[81]	Matthews, R. A., Wayne, J. H., & Ford, M. T . (2014). A work-family conflict/subjective well-being process model: A test of competing theories of longitudinal effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(6), 1173-1187. doi: 10.1037/a0036674 URL
[82]	McCullough, M. E., Kilpatrick, S. D., Emmons, R. A., & Larson, D. B . (2001). Is gratitude a moral affect? Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 249-266.
[83]	McDonnell, M. H., & King, B. G . (2013). Keeping up appearances: Reputational threat and impression management after social movement boycotts. Administrative Science Quarterly, 58(3), 387-419.
[84]	Menard, S . (2002). Longitudinal research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
[85]	Merton, R. K . (1968). The Matthew Effect in science. Science, 159(3810), 56-63.
[86]	Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D . (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167-202. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 URL
[87]	Morran, C . (2013). Waitress who posted no-tip receipt from “pastor” customer fired from job. In Consumerist. Retrieved from http://consumerist.com/2013/01/31/.
[88]	Morrison, E. W . (1993). Longitudinal study of the effects of information seeking on newcomer socialization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(2), 173-183. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.78.2.173 URL
[89]	Neeley, T. B., & Dumas, T. L . (2016). Unearned status gain: Evidence from a global language mandate. Academy of Management Journal, 59(1), 14-43.
[90]	Neuman, J. H., & Baron, R. A . (1997). Aggression in the workplace. In R. A. Giacalone & J. Greenberg (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in organizations ( pp.37-67). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
[91]	Ng, T. W. H., & Yam, K. C . (2019). When and why does employee creativity fuel deviance? Key psychological mechanisms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(9), 1144-1163.
[92]	Ouyang, K., Xu, E., Huang, X., Liu, W., & Tang, Y . (2018). Reaching the limits of reciprocity in favor exchange: The effects of generous, stingy, and matched favor giving on social status. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(6), 614-630. doi: 10.1037/apl0000288 URL
[93]	Palmer, D., & Yenkey, C. B . (2015). Drugs, sweat, and gears: An organizational analysis of performance-enhancing drug use in the 2010 Tour de France. Social Forces, 94(2), 891-922. doi: 10.1093/sf/sov046 URL
[94]	Peng, A. C., Schaubroeck, J. M., Chong, S., & Li, Y . (2019). Discrete emotions linking abusive supervision to employee intention and behavior. Personnel Psychology, 72(3), 393-419.
[95]	Pettit, N. C., Doyle, S. P., Lount, Jr., R., B., & To, C . (2016). Cheating to get ahead or to avoid falling behind? The effect of potential negative versus positive status change on unethical behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 137, 172-183. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2016.09.005 URL
[96]	Pettit, N. C., Yong, K., & Spataro, S. E . (2010). Holding your place: Reactions to the prospect of status gains and losses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 396-401. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.12.007 URL
[97]	Piazza, A., & Castellucci, F . (2014). Status in organization and management theory. Journal of Management, 40(1), 287-315. doi: 10.1177/0149206313498904 URL
[98]	Pierce, J. L., Gardner, D. G., Cummings, L. L., & Dunham, R. B . (1989). Organization-based self-esteem: Construct definition, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 32(3), 622-648.
[99]	Ployhart, R. E., & Vandenberg, R. J . (2010). Longitudinal research: Theory, design, and analysis of change. Journal of Management, 36(1), 94-120. doi: 10.1177/0149206309352110 URL
[100]	Podolny, J. M., & Phillips, D. J . (1996). The dynamics of organizational status. Journal of Industrial and Corporate Change, 5(2), 453-471.
[101]	Reh, S., Tröster, C., & van Quaquebeke, N . (2018). Keeping (future) rivals down: Temporal social comparison predicts coworker social undermining via future status threat and envy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(4), 399-415.
[102]	Ridgeway, C. L., & Berger, J . (1986). Expectations, legitimation, and dominance behavior in task groups. American Sociological Review, 51(5), 603-617.
[103]	Roseman, I. J . (2013). Appraisal in the emotion system: Coherence in strategies for coping. Emotion Review, 5(2), 141-149.
[104]	Sackett, P. R., Berry, C. M., Wiemann, S. A., & Laczo, R. M . (2006). Citizenship and counterproductive behavior: Clarifying relations between the two domains. Human Performance, 19(4), 441-464.
[105]	Sauder, M., & Espeland, W. N . (2009). The discipline of rankings: Tight coupling and organizational change. American Sociological Review, 74(1), 63-82.
[106]	Sauder, M., Lynn, F., & Podolny, J. M . (2012). Status: Insights from Organizational Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 38(1), 267-283. doi: 10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145503 URL
[107]	Scheepers, P. T. J . (2009). Biomarkers of exposure to carcinogens. In B. S. T. Ballantyne & T. Syversen,( Eds.) General and applied toxicology (3rd edition) (pp 1841-185). Chisester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
[108]	Schlenker, B. R., & Pontari, B. A . (2000). The strategic control of information: Impression management and self-presentation in daily life. In A. Tesser, R. B. Felson, & J. M. Suls (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on self and identity( pp. 199-232). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
[109]	Settoon, R. P., Bennett, N., & Liden, R. C . (1996). Social exchange in organizations: Perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, and employee reciprocity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(3), 219-227. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.81.3.219 URL
[110]	Sharkey, A. J . (2018). The dark side of status. Journal of Management Inquiry, 27(4), 368-370. doi: 10.1177/1056492617737708 URL
[111]	Sheldon, K. M., & Schüler, J . (2011). Wanting, having, and needing: Integrating motive disposition theory and self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5), 1106-1123. doi: 10.1037/a0024952 URL
[112]	Sherman, G. D., Lee, J. J., Cuddy, A. J. C., Renshon, J., Oveis, C., Gross, J. J., & Lerner, J. S . (2012). Leadership is associated with lower levels of stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(44), 17903-17907. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1207042109 URL
[113]	Smith, A. L., Lemyre, P.-N., & Raedeke, T. D . (2007). Advances in athlete burnout research. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38(4), 337-341.
[114]	Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F . (1998). Self-efficacy and work related performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 240-261.
[115]	Steckler, C. M., & Tracy, J. L . (2014). The emotional underpinnings of social status. In J. T. Cheng, J. L. Tracy, & C. Anderson (Eds.), The psychology of social status( pp. 201-224). New York, US: Springer.
[116]	Stryker, S., & Statham, A . (1985). Symbolic interaction and role theory. In Lindzey, G., & Aronson, E.( Eds.), Handbook of social psychology
[117]	Stuart, T. E., & Ding, W. W . (2006). When do scientists become entrepreneurs? The social structural antecedents of commercial activity in the academic life sciences. American Journal of Sociology, 112(1), 97-144. doi: 10.1086/502691 URL
[118]	Sutton, R. I., & Hargadon, A . (1996). Brainstorming groups in context: Effectiveness in a product design firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(4), 685-718.
[119]	Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C . (1985). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S., Worchel, & W. G., Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations( pp. 7-24). Chiago, USA: NelsonHall.
[120]	Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J . (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 345-372.
[121]	Taris, T. W., van Horn, J. E., Schaufeli, W. B., & Schreurs, P. J. G . (2004). Inequity, burnout and psychological withdrawal among teachers: A dynamic exchange model. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17(1), 103-122. doi: 10.1080/1061580031000151620 URL
[122]	Tetrick, L. E., & Buffardi, L. C . (2006) . Measurement issues in research on the work-home interface. In F. Jones, R. J. Burke, & M. Westman (Eds.), Work- life balance: A psychological perspective (pp. 90-114). New York, NY: Psychological Press.
[123]	Tiedens, L. Z . (2001). Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: The effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 86-94. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.86 URL
[124]	Turner, J. C. (1982). Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations (pp. 15-40). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[125]	Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B . (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33(1), 101-126.
[126]	Walker, I., & Smith, H. J . (Eds.) (2002). Relative deprivation: Specification, development, and integration Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press Specification, development, and integration. Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press.
[127]	Wang, L., Law, K. S., Zhang, M. J., Li, Y. N., & Liang, Y . (2019). It's mine! Psychological ownership of one's job explains positive and negative workplace outcomes of job engagement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104(2), 229-246.
[128]	Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A . (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063-1070.
[129]	Weiss, H. M., Suckow, K., & Cropanzano, R . (1999). Effects of justice conditions on discrete emotions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(5), 786-794.
[130]	Willer, R . (2009). Groups reward individual sacrifice: The status solution to the collective action problem. American Sociological Review, 74(1), 23-43. doi: 10.1177/000312240907400102 URL
[131]	Zinko, R., Ferris, G. R., Blass, F. R., & Laird, M. D . (2007). Toward a theory of reputation in organizations. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 26(07), 163-204.