群际偏差的进化：人类对暴力与疾病威胁的适应

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2019.02084

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

内群体偏好与内群体贬低现象普遍存在于社会生活中, 但为何会存在这两种群际偏差的心理机制以及这两种群际偏差是否具有进化基础的问题一直没有得到解答。通过系统整理在暴力威胁和疾病威胁构成的生存压力下, 两种群际偏差遵循烟雾探测原则和功能弹性原则处理威胁线索的研究报告, 研究说明了两者虽然方向完全相反, 但却是同一威胁管理机制对特定的内外群体关系产生的不同反应, 具有进化的适应性, 支持其进化假说。

关键词: 内群体偏好, 内群体贬低, 威胁, 烟雾探测, 功能弹性

Abstract:

Ingroup favoritism and ingroup derogation are very common our social lives, but the researchers still don’t know why these two kinds of intergroup biases can exist and whether these two kinds of biases have evolutionary functions. By systematically reviewing the research reports about the evidence that these two kinds of intergroup biases follow the principles of smoke detection and functional flexibility to deal with the threats of violence and disease incurred by ingroups and outgroups, the literature review showed that although the directions of ingroup favoritism and ingroup derogation are completely opposite to each other, both of these two biases are adaptive responses of the same threat management mechanism which is designed to deal with specific ingroup and outgroup threats. In conclusion, the current evidence suggests that the intergroup bias has adaptive functions and thus it supports the evolutionary hypothesis of intergroup bias.

Key words: ingroup favoritism, ingroup derogation, threat, smoke detection, functional flexibility

中图分类号:

B849: C91

周晴, 吴奇. (2019). 群际偏差的进化：人类对暴力与疾病威胁的适应. 心理科学进展 , 27(12), 2084-2096.

ZHOU Qing, WU Qi. (2019). Evolution of intergroup bias: Adaptation to the threats of violence and disease. Advances in Psychological Science, 27(12), 2084-2096.

参考文献 94

[1]	何晓丽, 谢荣慧 . ( 2018). 群体共情对群际关系的影响:基于社会冲突解决的视角. 心理科学, 41( 1), 174-179.
[2]	李琼, 刘力 . ( 2011). 低地位群体的外群体偏好. 心理科学进展, 19( 7), 1061-1068.
[3]	吴宝沛, 张雷 . ( 2011). 疾病的心理防御:人类如何应对病菌威胁. 心理科学进展, 19( 3), 410-419.
[4]	向玲, 赵玉芳 . ( 2013). 使用加工分离程序对低地位群体内\外群体偏爱的研究. 心理科学, 36( 3), 702-705.
[5]	佐斌, 徐同洁 . ( 2015). 低地位群体的内/外群体偏好: 基于SC-IAT的检验. 心理研究, 8( 1), 26-30.
[6]	Aarøe, L., Osmundsen, M., & Petersen, M. B . ( 2016). Distrust as a disease avoidance strategy: Individual differences in disgust sensitivity regulate generalized social trust. Frontiers in Psychology , 7,1038.
[7]	Ackerman, J. M., Hill, S. E., & Murray, D. R . ( 2018). The behavioral immune system: Current concerns and future directions. Social & Personality Psychology Compass, 12( 2), e12371.
[8]	Ainsworth, S. E., & Maner, J. K . ( 2014). Hunger moderates the activation of psychological disease avoidance mechanisms. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 8( 4), 303-313.
[9]	Barker, J. L., & Barclay, P. (2016). Local competition increases people’s willingness to harm others. Evolution and Human Behavior, 37( 4), 315-322.
[10]	Bauer, M., Cassar, A., Chytilová, J., & Henrich, J . ( 2013). War’s enduring effects on the development of egalitarian motivations and in-group biases. Psychological Science, 25( 1), 47-57.
[11]	Becker, D. V., Mortensen, C. R., Ackerman, J. M., Shapiro, J. R., Anderson, U. S., Sasaki, T., … Kenrick, D. T . ( 2011). Signal detection on the battlefield: Priming self-protection vs revenge-mindedness differentially modulates the detection of enemies and allies.. PLoS ONE, 6( 9), e23929.
[12]	Becker, D. V., Mortensen, C. R., Anderson, U. S., & Sasaki, T . ( 2014). Out of sight but not out of mind: Memory scanning is attuned to threatening faces. Evolutionary Psychology, 12( 5), 147470491401200.
[13]	Blascovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., Lickel, B., & Kowai-Bell, N . ( 2001). Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80( 2), 253-267.
[14]	Brewer, M. B . ( 2007). The importance of being we: Human nature and intergroup relations. American Psychologist, 62( 8), 728-738.
[15]	Brown, G. D. A., Fincher, C. L., & Walasek, L . ( 2016). Personality, parasites, political attitudes, and cooperation: A model of how infection prevalence influences openness and social group formation. Topics in Cognitive Science, 8( 1), 98-117.
[16]	Cashdan, E., & Steele, M. (2013). Pathogen prevalence, group bias, and collectivism in the standard cross-cultural sample. Human Nature, 24( 1), 59-75.
[17]	Cesario, J., & Navarrete, C. D . ( 2014). Perceptual bias in threat distance: The critical roles of in-group support and target evaluations in defensive threat regulation. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5( 1), 12-17.
[18]	Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., Kwan, V. S. Y., Glick, P., Demoulin, S., Leyens, J.-P., … Ziegler, R . ( 2009). Stereotype content model across cultures: Towards universal similarities and some differences. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48( 1), 1-33.
[19]	Duncan, L. A., & Schaller, M. (2009). Prejudicial attitudes toward older adults may be exaggerated when people feel vulnerable to infectious disease: Evidence and implications. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 9( 1), 97-115.
[20]	Endo, Y., Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R . ( 2000). Culture and positive illusions in close relationships: How my relationships are better than yours. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26( 12), 1571-1586.
[21]	Fincher, C. L., & Thornhill, R. (2012 a). Parasite-stress promotes in-group assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity.Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35( 2), 61-79.
[22]	Fincher, C. L., & Thornhill, R. (2012 b). The parasite-stress theory may be a general theory of culture and sociality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35( 2), 99-119.
[23]	Fincher, C. L., Thornhill, R., Murray, D. R., & Schaller, M . ( 2008). Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism/collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275( 1640), 1279-1285.
[24]	Gilead, M., & Liberman, N. (2014). We take care of our own: Caregiving salience increases out-group bias in response to out-group threat. Psychological Science, 25( 7), 1380-1387.
[25]	Haselton, M. G., & Nettle, D. (2006). The paranoid optimist: An integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10( 1), 47-66.
[26]	Hengartner, M. P . ( 2017). The evolutionary life history model of externalizing personality: Bridging human and animal personality science to connect ultimate and proximate mechanisms underlying aggressive dominance, hostility, and impulsive sensation seeking. Review of General Psychology, 21( 4), 330-353.
[27]	Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., & Willis, H . ( 2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology, 53( 1), 575-604.
[28]	Hruschka, D. J., & Henrich, J. (2013). Institutions, parasites and the persistence of in-group preferences. PLoS One, 8( 5), e63642.
[29]	Huang, J. Y., Ackerman, J. M., & Sedlovskaya, A . ( 2017). (De) contaminating product preferences: A multi-method investigation into pathogen threat's influence on used product preferences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 143-152.
[30]	Huang, J. Y., Sedlovskaya, A., Ackerman, J. M., & Bargh, J. A . ( 2011). Immunizing against prejudice: Effects of disease protection on attitudes toward out-groups. Psychological Science, 22( 12), 1550-1556.
[31]	Hu, C., Li, X. F., & Wu, Q. (2018, September). Pathogen load and the nature of ingroup derogation: Evolution of ingroup derogation based on the sexual penna model. In 2018 4th International Conference on Social Science and Higher Education (ICSSHE 2018). Atlantis Press.
[32]	Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D. A., & Bloom, P . ( 2012). Disgusting smells cause decreased liking of gay men. Emotion, 12( 1), 23-27.
[33]	Jackson, J. W . ( 1993). Realistic group conflict theory: A review and evaluation of the theoretical and empirical. Psychological Record, 43( 3), 395-413.
[34]	Jost, J. T . ( 2001). Outgroup favoritism and the theory of system justification: A paradigm for investigating the effects of socioeconomic success on stereotype content. In G. Moskowitz (Ed.), Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton symposium on the legacy and future of social cognition ( pp. 89-102). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Hungarian Translation.
[35]	Kitayama, S., Palm, R. I., Masuda, T., Karasawa, M., & Carroll, J . ( 1996). Optimism in the US and pessimism in Japan: Perceptions of earthquake risk (Unpublished doctorial dissertation). Kyoto University.
[36]	Lab, T. H . ( 2019, January 31). Individual differences in pathogen avoidance motivation vary as a function of control over pathogen exposure and basal immunological activity. .
[37]	Leonardelli, G. J., & Brewer, M. B . ( 2001). Minority and majority discrimination: When and why. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37( 6), 468-485.
[38]	Le, S. H. T . ( 2013). Societal trust and geography. Cross-Cultural Research, 47( 4), 388-414.
[39]	Letendre, K., Fincher, C. L., & Thornhill, R . ( 2010). Does infectious disease cause global variation in the frequency of intrastate armed conflict and civil war? Biological Reviews,85( 3), 669-669.
[40]	Lewis, T. T., Kravitz, H. M., Janssen, I., & Powell, L. H . ( 2011). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and visceral fat in middle-aged African-American and Caucasian women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 173( 11), 1223-1231.
[41]	Liu, X., Shan, W., & Jin, S. H . ( 2015). Civilised behaviour: A Chinese indigenous intergroup perception dimension. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 9( 2), 108-119.
[42]	Liuzza, M. T., Olofsson, J. K., Cancino-Montecinos, S., & Lindholm, T . ( 2019). Body odor disgust sensitivity predicts moral harshness toward moral violations of purity. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 458.
[43]	Lund, E. M., & Miller, S. L . ( 2014). Is obesity un-American? Disease concerns bias implicit perceptions of national identity. Evolution and Human Behavior, 35( 4), 336-340.
[44]	Mahajan, N., & Wynn, K. (2012). Origins of “Us” versus “Them”: Prelinguistic infants prefer similar others. Cognition, 124( 2), 227-233.
[45]	Ma-Kellams, C., Spencer-Rodgers, J., & Peng, K . ( 2011). I am against us? Unpacking cultural differences in ingroup favoritism via dialecticism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37( 1), 15-27.
[46]	Makhanova, A., Miller, S. L., & Maner, J. K . ( 2015). Germs and the out-group: Chronic and situational disease concerns affect intergroup categorization. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 9( 1), 8-19.
[47]	Mange, J., Sharvit, K., Margas, N., & Sénémeaud, C . ( 2015). Do I shoot faster because I am thinking about an outgroup or a threatening outgroup?. Social Psychology, 47( 1), 1-9.
[48]	March, D. S., & Graham, R. (2015). Exploring implicit ingroup and outgroup bias toward Hispanics. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 18( 1), 89-103.
[49]	McDonald, M. M., Asher, B. D., Kerr, N. L., & Navarrete, C. D . ( 2011). Fertility and intergroup bias in racial and minimal-group contexts: Evidence for shared architecture. Psychological Science, 22( 7), 860-865.
[50]	Mifune, N., Simunovic, D., & Yamagishi, T . ( 2017). Intergroup biases in fear-induced aggression. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 49.
[51]	Miller, S. L., & Maner, J. K . ( 2011). Sick body, vigilant mind: The biological immune system activates the behavioral immune system. Psychological Science, 22( 12), 1467-1471.
[52]	Miller, S.L., & Maner, J. K . ( 2012). Overperceiving disease cues: The basic cognition of the behavioral immune system. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102( 6), 1198-1213.
[53]	Miller, S. L., Maner, J. K., & Becker, D. V . ( 2010). Self-protective biases in group categorization: Threat cues shape the psychological boundary between “us” and “them”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99( 1), 62-77.
[54]	Montalan, B., Lelard, T., Godefroy, O., & Mouras, H . ( 2012). Behavioral investigation of the influence of social categorization on empathy for pain: A minimal group paradigm study. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 389.
[55]	Murray, D. R., Prokosch, M. L., & Airington, Z . ( 2019). PsychoBehavioroimmunology: Connecting the behavioral immune system to its physiological foundations. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 200.
[56]	Murray, D. R., & Schaller, M. (2016). Chapter two - the behavioral immune system: Implications for social cognition, social interaction, and social influence. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 53, 75-129.
[57]	Neuberg, S. L., Kenrick, D. T., & Schaller, M . ( 2011). Human threat management systems: Self-protection and disease avoidance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35( 4), 1042-1051.
[58]	O’Handley, B. M., Blair, K. L., & Hoskin, R. A . ( 2017). What do two men kissing and a bucket of maggots have in common? Heterosexual men’s indistinguishable salivary α-amylase responses to photos of two men kissing and disgusting images. Psychology & Sexuality, 8( 3), 173-188.
[59]	Orey, B. D., & Park, H. (2012). Nature, nurture, and ethnocentrism in the minnesota twin study. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 15( 1), 71-73.
[60]	Park, J. H., Faulkner, J., & Schaller, M . ( 2003). Evolved disease-avoidance processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes and avoidance of people with physical disabilities. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27( 2), 65-87.
[61]	Park, J. H., Schaller, M., & Crandall, C. S . ( 2007). Pathogen-avoidance mechanisms and the stigmatization of obese people. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28( 6), 410-414.
[62]	Petersen, M. B . ( 2017). Healthy out-group members are represented psychologically as infected in-group members. Psychological Science, 28( 12), 1857-1863.
[63]	Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R . ( 2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12( 5), 729-738.
[64]	Reese, G., Steffens, M. C., & Jonas, K. J . ( 2013). Religious affiliation and attitudes towards gay men: On the mediating role of masculinity threat. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 24( 4), 340-355.
[65]	Reicher, S. D., Templeton, A., Neville, F., Ferrari, L., & Drury, J . ( 2016). Core disgust is attenuated by ingroup relations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113( 10), 2631-2635.
[66]	Schaller, M. (2006). Parasites, behavioral defenses, and the social psychological mechanisms through which cultures are evoked. Psychological Inquiry, 17( 2), 96-101.
[67]	Schaller, M. (2011). The behavioural immune system and the psychology of human sociality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366( 1583), 3418-3426.
[68]	Schaller, M. , & Murray, D. R.( 2010). Infectious diseases and the evolution of cross-cultural differences. In M. Schaller, S. J. Norenzayan, T. Heine, Yamagishi & T. Kameda (Eds.), Evolution, culture, and the human mind (pp. 243-256). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
[69]	Schaller, M., & Neuberg, S. L . ( 2008). Intergroup prejudices and intergroup conflicts. In C. Crawford & D. L. Krebs (Eds.), Foundations of evolutionary psychology (pp. 399-412). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
[70]	Schaller, M., & Neuberg, S. L. ( 2012). Chapter one - danger, disease, and the nature of prejudice (s). In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 46 (pp. 1-54). Burlington: Academic Press.
[71]	Schaller, M., & Park, J. H . ( 2011). The behavioral immune system (and why it matters). Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20( 2), 99-103.
[72]	Schaller, M., Park, J. H., & Kenrick, D. T. ( 2007). Human evolution and social cognition. In R. I. M. Dunbar & L. Barrett (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology (pp. 491-504). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[73]	Scott-Phillips, T. C., Dickins, T. E., & West, S. A . ( 2011). Evolutionary theory and the ultimate-proximate distinction in the human behavioral sciences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6( 1), 38-47.
[74]	Shutts, K., Kinzler, K. D., McKee, C. B., & Spelke, E. S . ( 2009). Social information guides infants’ selection of foods. Journal of Cognition and Development, 10( 1-2), 1-17.
[75]	Talhelm, T., Zhang, X., Oishi, S., Shimin, C., Duan, D., Lan, X., & Kitayama, S . ( 2014). Large-scale psychological differences Within China explained by rice versus wheat agriculture. Science, 344( 6184), 603-608.
[76]	Terrizzi, J. A., Shook, N. J., & McDaniel, M. A . ( 2013). The behavioral immune system and social conservatism: A meta-analysis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34( 2), 99-108.
[77]	Terrizzi, J. A., Shook, N. J., & Ventis, W. L . ( 2012). Religious conservatism: An evolutionarily evoked disease- avoidance strategy. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 2( 2), 105-120.
[78]	Thornhill, R., & Fincher, C. L. ( 2014). The parasite-stress theory of values and sociality: Infectious disease, history and human values worldwide. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
[79]	Tybur, J. M., Inbar, Y., Aarøe, L., Barclay, P., Barlow, F. K., de Barra, M., … Žeželj, I . ( 2016). Parasite stress and pathogen avoidance relate to distinct dimensions of political ideology across 30 nations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113( 44), 12408-12413.
[80]	Umphress, E. E., Simmons, A. L., Boswell, W. R., & Triana, M. del C. (2008). Managing discrimination in selection: The influence of directives from an authority and social dominance orientation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93( 5), 982-993.
[81]	van Leeuwen, F., Park, J. H., Koenig, B. L., & Graham, J . ( 2012). Regional variation in pathogen prevalence predicts endorsement of group-focused moral concerns. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33( 5), 429-437.
[82]	van Leeuwen, F., & Petersen, M. B . ( 2018). The behavioral immune system is designed to avoid infected individuals, not outgroups. Evolution and Human Behavior, 39( 2), 226-234.
[83]	van Vugt, M., & Park, J. H . ( 2009). Guns, germs, and sex: How evolution shaped our intergroup psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3( 6), 927-938.
[84]	Varnum, M. E. W . ( 2014). Sources of regional variation in social capital in the United States: Frontiers and pathogens. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 8( 2), 77-85.
[85]	West, S. A., El Mouden, C., & Gardner, A . ( 2011). Sixteen common misconceptions about the evolution of cooperation in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 32( 4), 231-262.
[86]	Whitt, S., & Wilson, R. K . ( 2007). The dictator game, fairness and ethnicity in postwar Bosnia. American Journal of Political Science, 51( 3), 655-668.
[87]	Williams, K. E. G., Sng, O., & Neuberg, S. L . ( 2015). Ecology- driven stereotypes override race stereotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113( 2), 310-315.
[88]	Wilson, J. P., Hugenberg, K., & Rule, N. O . ( 2017). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: From size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113( 1), 59-80.
[89]	Wu, Q., Liu, W., Li, C., Li, X. F., & Zhou, P . ( 2016). A price paid for our internal strife: Escalated intragroup aggression and the evolution of ingroup derogation. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1453.
[90]	Wu, Q., Tan, C., Wang, B., & Zhou, P . ( 2015). Behavioral immune system and ingroup derogation: The effects of infectious diseases on ingroup derogation attitudes. PLOS ONE, 10( 3), e0122794.
[91]	Xin, Z. Q., Yang, Z. X., & Liu, Y. H . ( 2017). The impact of friend-or-foe cues and survival pressure on trust in the investment game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 38( 2), 181-189.
[92]	Zhang, J. G . ( 2018). Contemporary parasite stress curvilinearly correlates with outgroup trust: Cross-country evidence from 2005 to 2014. Evolution and Human Behavior, 39( 5), 556-565.
[93]	Zhao, K., Wu, Q., Shen, X. B., Xuan, Y. M., & Fu, X. L . ( 2012). I undervalue you but I need you: The dissociation of attitude and memory toward in-group members. PLoS ONE, 7( 3 e32932.
[94]	Zuo, Y. X., Chen, B., & Zhao, Y. F . ( 2018). The destructive effect of ingroup competition on ingroup favoritism. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2207.