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25 December 2026, Volume 58 Issue 12 Previous Issue   
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Reports of Empirical Studies


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Computational modeling of contextual gender effects on categorical perception of vowels and stops LIU Shun, WANG Suiping, HUANG Jian 2026, 58 (12):  2405-2420.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2405 Abstract ( 3 )   Speech perception is influenced by contextual factors, which significantly shape how listeners map acoustic cues to linguistic categories. This phenomenon is often revealed through speech categorization tasks, yet the precise cognitive-computational processes underlying these contextual effects remain underexplored. Previous research has established that speaker-specific characteristics, such as gender, systematically modulate speech perception, well known as talker normalization. However, a comprehensive understanding of how talker normalization is integrated into the real-time perceptual decision-making process is still lacking. This study applied a linear ballistic accumulator (LBA) model to analyze listeners’ behavioral data from vowel and stop continuum tasks, aiming to elucidate the computational cognitive mechanisms of talker normalization. To this end, we conducted four experiments, testing how contextual gender influences the perception of vowel formants and stop voice onset time (VOT). Experiments 1a and 1b used male and female nine-step vowel continua (ranging from [a] to [e]), respectively, while Experiments 2a and 2b employed male and female nine-step stop continua ([k] - [kh]). In each trial, a continuum stimulus was preceded by a sentence spoken by either a male or a female talker, thereby manipulating the contextual gender. Listeners provided a two-alternative forced-choice judgment, and we collected their categorical responses and reaction times for analysis. Our analysis, utilizing an LBA model that allowed contextual gender to modulate decision threshold (b), non-decision time (t0), and drift rate (v), provided the best fit to the data across all four experiments. The modulation of drift rate by contextual gender was consistent with the pattern observed in participants' categorical responses, revealing assimilation effects for vowel perception and compensation effects for stop perception. Furthermore, female contexts consistently prolonged non-decision time and reduced decision threshold compared to male contexts in Experiments 1a, 2a, and 2b. However, these effects were absent for the female vowel target (Experiment 1b), suggesting that target talker gender modulates the expression of contextual effects in a feature-specific manner. These results provide computational evidence for multi-stage cognitive mechanisms underlying contextual effects on speech perception, as revealed by the LBA framework. By integrating categorical responses and reaction times, the LBA model allowed us to pinpoint specific subprocesses affected by context—sensory encoding (t0), evidence accumulation efficiency (v), and decision criterion (b)—going beyond simply observing shifts in categorization functions. The differential modulation of these latent processes by contextual gender for formants and VOT suggests a feature-specific, multifaceted mechanism by which environmental factors influence speech perception. Crucially, this evidence-accumulation framework provides a powerful tool for disentangling the complex interplay between acoustic cues and cognitive processes, enhancing our understanding of how contextual variability shapes flexible speech categorization across diverse listening environments. This constitutes a finer-grained account of contextual effects than traditional analyses based solely on categorization shifts. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Statistical learning and sensorimotor coupling: Dual pathways underlying infant speech perception XIAO Rong, LIANG Dandan 2026, 58 (12):  2421-2437.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2421 Abstract ( 5 )   PDF (231KB) ( 1 )   During the first year of life, infants’ speech perception undergoes a remarkable reorganization: their attention shifts from discriminating broad, non-native phonetic contrasts to focusing primarily on distinctions within their native language. How do infants develop this specialized sensitivity? The acquisition of speech perception is theorized to rely on two complementary mechanisms: statistical learning and sensorimotor coupling. Statistical learning emphasizes infants’ sensitivity to the distributional regularities of speech input, whereas sensorimotor coupling highlights the modulatory role of articulatory motor feedback. The present study examined the contributions of these two mechanisms during the sensitive period to determine whether speech perception arises from a single mechanism or from multiple mechanisms. The present study examined the contributions and boundaries of statistical learning and sensorimotor coupling in 80 eight-month-old Mandarin-learning infants using an alternating/non-alternating visual fixation paradigm across two experiments. Experiment 1 manipulated the distributional properties of the familiarization input to evaluate statistical learning. Infants were exposed to either a unimodal or bimodal frequency distribution of speech tokens and subsequently tested for their ability to discriminate the Hindi dental-retroflex contrast (/ɖ/-/d?/). Experiment 2 examined the contribution of sensorimotor coupling by using a teething toy that either restricted or did not restrict tongue-tip movement, following the paradigm of Bruderer et al. (2015). No additional auditory familiarization was provided, allowing us to assess the contribution of motor feedback to speech perception in the absence of short-term familiarization. Both experiments utilized speech and non-speech stimuli. The speech stimuli comprised the Hindi dental-retroflex contrast (/ɖ/-/d?/), while the non-speech control stimuli consisted of synthesized tones based on piano timbre, designed to approximate selected temporal and spectral properties of the speech stimuli. Across all conditions, infants’ looking times decreased progressively with repeated stimulus presentations, confirming a habituation effect. (1) After exposure to the bimodal distribution, infants exhibited significantly longer looking times to alternating speech streams than to non-alternating speech streams, indicating successful speech discrimination. Conversely, those in the unimodal condition, showed no significant differences between alternating and non-alternating speech streams, suggesting the lack of effective speech discrimination. When the stimuli were non-speech sounds, neither the bimodal nor the unimodal distribution elicited discrimination behaviour. (2) The results of Experiment 2 revealed that under the unrestricted tongue-tip movement condition, infants demonstrated significantly longer looking times to alternating speech streams than to non-alternating ones, indicating speech discrimination. In contrast, no significant discrimination effect was observed when tongue-tip movement was restricted. For non-speech stimuli, neither motor condition elicited discrimination behaviour. The findings suggest that statistical learning and sensorimotor coupling may jointly contribute to early speech perception, revealing a multi-mechanistic architecture in infant language acquisition. Under the current experimental conditions, the distributional learning effect was primarily observed for speech stimuli, whereas the sensorimotor manipulation showed a similar but less conclusive trend. This relative advantage for speech stimuli may reflect infants’ selective attentional orientation towards speech and the preferential activation of sensorimotor couplings by speech signals, though this interpretation remains preliminary and requires validation from future larger-sample studies. Moreover, the role of environmental input in speech acquisition appears to be multilevel: while the sensorimotor mechanism may support discrimination sensitivity without short-term exposure to the specific speech contrast, the statistical learning mechanism may further refine and stabilize this sensitivity through continuous exposure to the ambient language environment. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Task states dynamically modulate the Chinese N200 repetition enhancement effect: Evidence from the Bayesian Reader model HU Saisai, FU Zeqing, ZHOU Aibao, YIN Yulong 2026, 58 (12):  2438-2455.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2438 Abstract ( 2 )   Whether task state shapes early orthographic processing during repeated Chinese word and character recognition beyond stimulus-driven feedforward processing remains unclear. Repetition elicits N200 repetition enhancement, which is a neural marker sensitive to early orthographic processing. Feedforward accounts predict that this effect depends primarily on the physical properties of repetition. By contrast, the Bayesian Reader Model predicts that processing depth is adjusted according to prior probability, task complexity, and interference. We examined whether N200 repetition enhancement reflects such task-state-driven tuning. Two electroencephalography experiments used a visual repetition priming paradigm. Both contrasted lexical-semantic access tasks, which required semantic access, with orthographic matching tasks based primarily on visual-form comparison. In Experiment 1, repetition probability and task type were manipulated using lexical decision and same-different judgment, respectively (N = 24). Experiment 2 used semantic and same-different judgment while manipulating interference through orthographically similar characters and holding visual repetition probability constant (N = 24). In Experiment 1, task type significantly modulated N200 repetition enhancement, which was stronger during lexical-semantic access than during orthographic matching. The effect of repetition probability was task dependent. High repetition probability eliminated N200 repetition enhancement during orthographic matching but not during lexical-semantic access. In Experiment 2, both high- and low-interference conditions elicited significant N200 repetition enhancement during orthographic matching, a pattern that differed from the absence of enhancement under high repetition probability in Experiment 1. However, enhancement magnitude did not differ significantly between the two interference levels. Across both experiments, N400 effects displayed the reverse task pattern, with larger effects during orthographic matching than during lexical-semantic access. Together, the results indicate that N200 repetition enhancement varies across task complexity, prior probability, and interference contexts. The cross-experiment difference further suggests that visual repetition probability alone may not fully account for the observed pattern. From the perspective of the Bayesian Reader Model, the findings provide electrophysiological evidence for task-state-driven tuning of early orthographic processing in Chinese recognition. The independent contribution of interference should nevertheless be tested in a unified experimental design. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Neural mechanisms underlying the processing of Chinese semantic-pun and homophonic-pun jokes JIN Tingting, QIAN Yufu, FAN Xinru, WANG Qian, REN Guiqin, LI Weijun 2026, 58 (12):  2456-2473.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2456 Abstract ( 4 )   PDF (1015KB) ( 0 )   Pun jokes are a typical form of verbal humor that relies on ambiguity, contextual reinterpretation, and the resolution of incongruity. In Chinese, semantic puns and homophonic puns are two important types of pun-based humor. Semantic pun jokes mainly depend on the multiple meanings of the same linguistic form and require the reader to shift between different semantic frames, whereas homophonic pun jokes rely on phonological similarity between words and require the activation of an unstated but contextually relevant meaning. Although previous studies have examined joke comprehension and pun processing, relatively little is known about whether Chinese semantic and homophonic pun jokes follow the same temporal dynamics during incongruity detection, meaning reconstruction, and humor appreciation. The present study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to examine the neural time course of Chinese semantic and homophonic pun joke comprehension. A 2 × 2 within-subject design was adopted, with material type (semantic pun vs. homophonic pun) and humorousness (joke vs. non-joke) as factors. Native Chinese speakers read four types of sentence materials: semantic pun jokes, semantic pun non-jokes, homophonic pun jokes, and homophonic pun non-jokes. Joke and non-joke sentences within each pun type shared the same critical punchline word, while the preceding context was manipulated to create either a humorous or non-humorous interpretation. Participants were asked to read each sentence and then rate its unexpectedness, comprehensibility, and funniness. EEG signals were recorded while participants processed the critical words. ERP analyses focused on P200, N400, early late positive potential (early LPP), and late late positive potential (late LPP) components, which were used to index early salience detection or preliminary incongruity awareness, semantic integration, meaning reconstruction, and later evaluative or affective processing. Behavioral results showed that pun jokes were rated as more unexpected and funnier than non-jokes. Comprehension ratings did not differ between jokes and non-jokes, but were higher for semantic-pun than for homophonic-pun materials. ERP results showed that pun jokes elicited larger P200 and early/late LPP amplitudes than non-jokes, suggesting early salience detection, meaning reconstruction, contextual integration, and later affective evaluation. These findings support a multi-stage account of joke comprehension. Further analyses showed that semantic pun jokes elicited larger early and late LPP amplitudes than homophonic pun jokes, indicating greater cognitive demands during meaning reconstruction and contextual integration. This suggests that subjective funniness and late ERP effects may reflect different processes: immediate humor experience versus deeper semantic integration and sustained evaluative processing. Overall, this study provides ERP evidence for the multi-stage processing of Chinese pun jokes and shows that semantic and homophonic puns differ in late-stage cognitive and affective processing. The findings suggest that Chinese pun joke comprehension involves the interaction of linguistic ambiguity, contextual constraints, semantic reconstruction, and humor appreciation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of speaker's stereotypical beliefs and task demands on perspective-taking in irony comprehension DU Yanan, XU Wenyuan, GE Fengling, SUM Fengjiao, XIA tian, ZONG Wenhui, ZHOU Maonan 2026, 58 (12):  2474-2493.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2474 Abstract ( 0 )   PDF (1122KB) ( 0 )   Successful communication relies on perspective-taking, which is the ability to infer a speaker’s intentions by representing their beliefs and attitudes. A central theoretical issue concerns whether this process is automatic or effortful, reflecting the broader debate between serial and constraint-based models of language processing. While serial models posit an initial egocentric bias followed by later adjustment, constraint-based models assume that perspective is integrated in parallel with other linguistic cues from the outset. To examine how social context and task demands shape perspective-taking during irony comprehension, this study employed a 3 (speaker’s belief: classically gender-stereotypical, counterstereotypical, neutral) × 2 (utterance type: ironic, literal) within-participants design. Participants read scenarios composed of six segments (Background, Belief, Event, Target, Spillover, and Conclusion). The experimental materials were identical across conditions except for the Belief and Event segments, in which critical variations were introduced. Two self-paced reading experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1, participants provided explicit irony judgements on a 5-point scale and then answered yes/no comprehension questions. Experiment 2 used only the comprehension questions and omitted the rating task. Individual differences were also assessed across multiple domains, including implicit and explicit gender attitudes (via the IAT and CMSS, respectively), social cognitive abilities (via the Interpersonal Reactivity Index Scale, IRI), and executive functions (via the Stroop task and a working memory capacity task), to examine their respective contributions to irony comprehension. In Experiment 1, an irony effect (longer reading times for ironic utterances than for literal utterances) was observed in the target region when the speaker's beliefs were counterstereotypical or neutral, but no such effect emerged when beliefs were classically stereotypical. The absence of an irony effect in the classically stereotypical condition reflects the fact that a highly predictable belief constitutes a strong contextual constraint, which facilitates the integration of ironic meanings without incurring additional processing costs. Individual difference analyses further revealed that only the subscale of the IRI, Empathic Concern (EC), modulated irony processing. Specifically, in the spillover region, higher IRI-EC was associated with facilitated processing of ironic utterances under both the classically stereotypical and neutral conditions. In Experiment 2, processing costs were confined to the neutral condition and appeared only in the spillover region and not in the target region. Individual difference analyses further revealed that only implicit gender attitudes moderate reading times in the neutral condition. Specifically, in neutral contexts, readers with stronger implicit gender stereotypes exhibited more cautious processing of literal utterances, as reflected in prolonged reading times in the spillover region. Three main conclusions emerge: (1) Speakers’ classical social beliefs generate strong expectations that facilitate irony processing without costs, whereas unconventional or neutral beliefs generate weak expectations and thus incur processing costs, which is consistent with a constraint-based parallel processing account. (2) Task demands modulate the timing and sensitivity to social conflict; explicit tasks amplify and accelerate the cost of counterstereotypical beliefs, whereas the condition that omits the explicit irony-rating task (while retaining comprehension questions) delays that cost. (3) Individual differences in implicit attitudes and social-cognitive abilities further moderate perspective-taking during irony comprehension. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Active encoding in visual working memory causes loss in passive storage LIU Huan, LI Ziyuan, HU Minglu, LIU Qiang 2026, 58 (12):  2494-2505.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2494 Abstract ( 2 )   Visual working memory (VWM) underpins higher cognitive activities such as reasoning and learning. State-based models propose that task-relevant representations are maintained in an active state, whereas representations that are temporarily irrelevant but still needed are transferred to a passive state. Previous studies have shown that passive representations resist irrelevant distractors and time decay, yet memory performance consistently declines once representations enter the passive state. However, the source of this loss was still unclear; in particular, it remained unknown whether subsequent active encoding would impair passive representations that had already been formed. Thus, this study aimed to examine whether subsequent active encoding impaired passive representations and whether this impairment was modulated by encoding load. We adopted a modified sequential change- detection paradigm, in which the first memory array (M1) was transferred to the passive state before later arrays (M2 and M3) were encoded into the active state; M1 was always tested last, so that its accuracy reflected passive memory. A total of 77 university students participated in three experiments. Experiment 1 (n = 23) manipulated the number of active encoding operations (one vs. two) during passive maintenance while holding the retention interval constant. Experiment 2 (n = 30) fixed two encoding operations and manipulated the load of the second encoding (M3: two vs. three items). Experiment 3 (n = 24) manipulated the load of the first encoding (M2: two vs. three items) to test whether M2 entered the passive state and competed with M1 for storage resources. We predicted that, if subsequent active encoding impaired passive representations, passive memory would be poorer after two encoding operations than after one; if this impairment depended on encoding load, a higher load would further reduce passive memory performance. The results of Experiment 1 showed that passive memory performance was significantly poorer after two encoding operations than after one, even with the retention interval matched, whereas extending the retention interval alone did not impair passive memory. Experiment 2 replicated this effect; although increasing M3 load significantly reduced memory performance for M3, it did not affect passive memory for M1. Experiment 3 again revealed a significant decline in passive memory after two encoding operations; increasing M2 load reduced memory performance for M2 itself but left passive memory for M1 unaffected, ruling out resource competition between M2 and M1 in the passive state. Response times revealed no speed-accuracy trade-off in passive memory. These findings indicated that subsequent active encoding impaired passive representations that had already been formed. Specifically, this impairment was sensitive to the number of encoding operations but insensitive to encoding load, suggesting that it arose from the encoding event itself rather than from competition for storage resources. In summary, during the maintenance of passive representations, subsequent active encoding is an important source of passive memory loss, and the extent of this loss depends on how often encoding occurs rather than on how much is encoded. These findings suggest that the passive state is not an unconditionally safe store, and extend state-based models by identifying an external source of passive memory loss beyond state-transition costs. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The calibration and mechanism of metamemory confidence bias by feedback with different anchors under multi-list learning LI Haifeng, DU Jiaxin, YANG Yunxia, LAI Shuping, ZHENG Xiaoqian 2026, 58 (12):  2506-2519.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2506 Abstract ( 2 )   PDF (732KB) ( 0 )   Judgments of learning (JOLs) refer to predictions about whether learned items can be recalled in a future test. Previous studies have shown that JOLs are not always accurate and often exhibit systematic biases. When JOLs are higher than the recall performance, this discrepancy manifests as an overestimation bias; conversely, when JOLs are lower than the recall performance, it manifests as an underestimation bias. These biases may distort individuals’ selection of learning strategies and allocation of learning time, thereby reducing learning efficiency. Findings regarding whether feedback reduces metamemory bias remain inconsistent. Some studies have reported no effect, whereas others have observed partial calibration. Furthermore, the mechanism underlying these effects remains unclear. According to the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic, individuals make JOLs based on a psychological anchor, which is partially derived from prior learning experiences or mnemonic beliefs. This anchor may shift across the learning of different lists. Therefore, feedback may shape JOLs for subsequent lists by updating individuals’ anchor associated with each list. Based on this heuristic, the present study employed two types of feedback in a multi-list learning context: high-anchor (performance +10%) and low-anchor (performance -10%) feedback. In two experiments, participants studied four lists. Before each learning phase, they made a global judgment of learning (GJOL) to predict the number of items they would recall on a subsequent memory test; this measure served as an indicator of participants’ psychological anchor prior to learning each list. Participants then studied each item and made item-level JOLs. After each list, they completed a 2-minute distractor task, followed by a memory test, and received list-level feedback. Experiment 1 used 40 word pairs as study materials and adopted a cued-recall task to induce overestimation bias, while Experiment 2 used 30 word pairs and employed a two-alternative forced-choice recognition task to induce underestimation bias. Experiment 1 used a 3 (Feedback Type: high-anchor, correct, low-anchor) × 4 (List Order: Lists 1-4) mixed experimental design with 102 participants (34 in high-anchor group, 33 in correct group, and 35 in low-anchor group). The results showed that neither high-anchor nor correct feedback exerted a calibration effect on overestimation bias across all four lists, whereas low-anchor feedback fully calibrated this bias for List 4. Meanwhile, GJOL (i.e., the anchor) mediated the effect of prior-list feedback on subsequent JOLs across the first two feedback-learning cycles, but showed no mediating effect in the final cycle. Experiment 2 adopted an identical design and recruited 99 participants (33 per group). The results showed that neither low-anchor nor correct feedback calibrated underestimation bias across all four lists, whereas high-anchor feedback fully calibrated this bias for List 3. Also, GJOL mediated the effect of feedback on subsequent JOLs in the first feedback-learning cycle, but not in the final two cycles. In both experiments, adjustment of JOLs in the final cycle was primarily driven by the transfer of anchors (i.e., GJOL) across adjacent lists, which ultimately led to calibration of the metamemory confidence bias. These findings indicate that low-anchor and high-anchor feedback can specifically calibrate overestimation and underestimation biases in metamemory, respectively. Practically, this study provides targeted calibration strategies for distinct types of metamemory confidence bias. Theoretically, it extends the typology and functional boundaries of external cues within the cue-utilization framework, and demonstrates that calibration of metamemory confidence bias must follow the principle that cue types should match bias types. In addition, the study expands the applicability of the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic and reveals the divergent effects of feedback and anchors on JOLs across different stages of multi-list learning. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Modality dependence in the subject-performed task effect for verbal instructions: The moderating role of action-object pair conventionality XIE Tingting, YANG Lianyu, WU Xiaotian, ZHOU Diandian, YU Zhanyu 2026, 58 (12):  2520-2531.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2520 Abstract ( 4 )   PDF (274KB) ( 0 )   The subject-performed task (SPT) effect refers to the finding that action encoding (physically performing described actions) yields better recall of verbal instructions than verbal encoding (merely listening to them). Multimodal theory proposes that this advantage arises because action encoding recruits additional sensory channels beyond the verbal modality, including kinesthetic (motor execution), visual (e.g., observing objects and actions), and tactile input (e.g., touching object surfaces), thereby enriching memory traces and enhancing their retrievability. Building on this framework, the present study examined how the conventionality of action-object pairings in verbal instructions moderates the multimodal dependencies of the SPT effect, with the aim of distinguishing critical from auxiliary sensory contributions. Three experiments were conducted using familiar everyday objects. In Experiment 1 (N = 200), we manipulated instruction conventionality (conventional, e.g., “sharpen a pencil” non-conventional, e.g., “poke a pencil”) and the presence versus absence of object pictures (providing visual cues without physical interaction). Results showed that conventional instructions elicited a SPT effect (i.e., performance in the action encoding condition was superior to that in the verbal encoding condition) regardless of whether pictures were present. In contrast, non-conventional instructions failed to produce the SPT effect even when object pictures were available. We hypothesized that static visual input alone may be insufficient to support the online integration of verbs and nouns for non-conventional pairings, and that physical interaction with objects might be necessary. To test this hypothesis, Experiment 2 (N = 58) replaced pictures with real, manipulable objects, enabling participants to physically interact with them during encoding. Under these conditions, non-conventional instructions yielded a significant SPT effect when objects were present but not when absent, indicating that sensorimotor interaction, rather than mere visibility, is essential for the SPT effect with non-conventional instructions. However, because real objects concurrently engage both vision and touch, Experiment 2 could not isolate which sensory channel drives this effect. Experiment 3 (N = 54) addressed this by orthogonally manipulating visual access (blindfolded vs. unblindfolded) and fine tactile fidelity (wearing gloves vs. bare-handed) during object interaction, with a verbal-only baseline. Results showed that the SPT effect emerged only when vision was available, irrespective of fine tactile condition. Specifically, recall performance was significantly better in both “vision + touch” and “vision + no-fine-touch” action conditions than in the verbal baseline (ps < .001), whereas “no-vision + touch” and “no-vision + no-fine-touch” conditions did not differ from verbal encoding (ps > .999). These findings demonstrate that vision, rather than fine tactile input, is the necessary channel for the SPT effect with non-conventional instructions. Collectively, these findings reveal that the sensory channel dependence of the SPT effect varies with instruction conventionality. For conventional instructions, kinesthetic input alone, without visual or tactile support, suffices to drive the SPT effect. For non-conventional instructions, the SPT effect requires the coordination of kinesthetic and visual input, while fine tactile information plays no independent role. These results refine multimodal theory by demonstrating that channel contributions are not simply additive, where more channels yield greater benefit, but are instead flexibly determined by whether pre-existing action-object associations are available. This advances the understanding of multimodal memory and offers practical guidance for memory support strategies in populations with sensory or neurodevelopmental differences (e.g., autism spectrum disorder), where optimizing visual-motor integration may enhance instruction memory without relying on tactile precision. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of uncertainty and prediction errors on emotional intensity: Evidence from behavior, eye-tracking, and fMRI YUAN Mengqi, ZOU Di, DAI Qiao, WAN Bei, LIU Qinke, GU Simeng, WANG Fushun 2026, 58 (12):  2532-2546.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2532 Abstract ( 1 )   PDF (289KB) ( 0 )   Uncertainty and prediction error play important roles in the initiation and regulation of emotions, and may serve as critical determinants of emotional intensity. Previous studies have suggested that emotional intensity may result from the combination of the value of arousal and valence. However, it remains unclear how uncertainty and prediction error influence these two dimensions independently or jointly, and how such influences further shape emotional intensity. Therefore, the present study aims to systematically examine the effects of uncertainty and prediction error on arousal and valence, and further explore their roles in emotional intensity. The present study conducted two experiments, using a card-gambling task adapted from the cue-target paradigm. Experiment 1 investigate how uncertainty and prediction error affect emotional responses at the subjective and physiological levels, with combined behavioral measures and eye-tracking techniques. Experiment 2 examine their differential influences on arousal and valence at the neural level using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). A total of 36 valid participants were included in Experiment 1, and 16 valid participants were included in Experiment 2. The results in experiment 1 showed that uncertainty and prediction error had significant interactive effects on arousal ratings and pupil dilation responses. Under low-uncertainty conditions, unexpected outcomes elicited higher arousal and greater pupil dilation than expected outcomes, whereas these differences were attenuated under high uncertainty. In contrast, the pattern observed in valence differed from that found for arousal and pupil responses, suggesting that uncertainty and prediction error may influence different components of emotion in distinct ways. The results in experiment 2 identified condition-dependent neural responses associated with uncertainty and prediction error. In addition, the interaction between uncertainty and prediction error engaged a distributed network of brain regions, including the superior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate gyrus, caudate nucleus, putamen, and brainstem. In conclusion, these results suggest that the influence of uncertainty and prediction error on emotional intensity is based on their different effects on arousal and valence. High uncertainty may impair the formation or precision of prediction error, thereby affecting subjective emotional experience and physiological responses. By integrating behavioral, eye-tracking, and neuroimaging evidence, the present study provides convergent support for the cognitive and neural mechanisms through which uncertainty and prediction error shape emotional experience, and thus offers a useful perspective for future research on stress and emotion regulation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of negative social feedback on behavioral inhibition in smokers: Serial evidence from behavioral and event-related potential studies SUN Meng, MENG Jinqiu, YUAN Jiajin 2026, 58 (12):  2547-2567.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2547 Abstract ( 1 )   PDF (670KB) ( 0 )   Impaired behavioral inhibition is not only a cognitive consequence of smoking but also a critical factor contributing to the difficulty of smoking cessation. Given the social nature of smoking behavior, negative social feedback targeting smoking may serve as a potential pathway to enhance inhibitory control in smokers. However, no direct empirical research has explored this possibility to date. To address this gap, the present study manipulated the category of negative social feedback (smoking-related feedback vs. general feedback) and employed a smoking-related Go/No-Go task combined with an Implicit Association Test to investigate the effects of negative social feedback from different sources on smokers' craving and behavioral inhibition. Meanwhile, event-related potentials were used to investigate the spatiotemporal dynamics of brain activity underlying these effects. The results revealed that: (1) Following the induction of negative social feedback, the general feedback group exhibited decreased behavioral inhibition performance, whereas the smoking feedback group showed significantly improved inhibition. Notably, this differential pattern emerged exclusively under smoking-cue conditions. (2) The smoking feedback group demonstrated a significant reduction in explicit craving at post-test, along with a declining trend in implicit craving, whereas no significant changes were observed in either craving dimension within the general feedback group. (3) Electrophysiological data indicated that general feedback led to a significant reduction in central P3 amplitudes, while smoking feedback did not induce such attenuation. Furthermore, compared to the general feedback group, the smoking feedback group exhibited larger central P3 amplitudes and smaller frontal N2 amplitudes during the post-test phase. (4) Participants' smoking craving levels significantly and negatively predicted Go reaction times and positively predicted No-Go error rates, suggesting a positive association between craving and behavioral dyscontrol. This study differentiated the directionality of negative social feedback, revealing that negative social feedback directed at smoking behavior can transform social pain into a potential facilitating effect on smoking-related behavioral inhibition. Collectively, these results demonstrate that negative social feedback targeting smoking behavior promotes smokers’ inhibitory control over smoking behavior and the associated neural processing. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Key factors of academic and social-emotional resilience: A quasi-causal analysis using machine learning and inverse probability weighting CHEN Siyuan, LI Yuanyuan, LIN Danhua, TANG Xin 2026, 58 (12):  2568-2594.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2568 Abstract ( 2 )   Children and adolescents who attain favorable developmental outcomes despite socioeconomic adversity are often characterized as resilient. While prior work has predominantly focused on academic resilience, less attention has been paid to social-emotional skills resilience, defined here as positive social-emotional adaptation among socioeconomically disadvantaged students. The present study aimed to identify the key influencing factors of both forms of resilience and to estimate their quasi-causal effects, while examining how these effects vary across developmental stages and gender. Data were drawn from the OECD Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES; N = 54, 729 students from nine countries, ages 10 and 15). Resilient students were operationalized within each country as those whose family socioeconomic status fell in the bottom quartile while their academic achievement (academic resilience) or social-emotional skills score (social-emotional skills resilience) fell in the top quartile. Missing data were addressed using multiple imputation by chained equations (five imputed datasets with ten iterations). Five machine learning algorithms, including Lasso regression, Random Forest, XGBoost, Classification and Regression Trees, and LightGBM, were used to screen candidate predictors across individual, family, and school domains. The top-ranked predictors were then entered into inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) analyses to estimate average treatment effects (ATEs) under the assumptions of ignorability and overlap, with cluster-robust standard errors at the school level. Cross-cultural robustness was assessed via country fixed-effects models and random-effects meta-analytic pooling of country-specific ATEs. Subgroup analyses were conducted by age (10 vs. 15) and gender. After covariate balancing, school belonging, interpersonal closeness with peers, and teacher-student relationships showed consistent positive quasi-causal effects on both forms of resilience, whereas parent-child conflict and academic anxiety showed consistent negative effects. For academic resilience, social-emotional skills exhibited the largest positive effect; for social-emotional skills resilience, extracurricular participation, self-academic expectations, friendship quality, and emotional growth mindset further showed domain-specific positive contributions. These patterns remained directionally stable across countries in fixed-effects and meta-analytic models, with effect magnitudes varying across contexts. Subgroup analyses suggested that 10-year-olds were more sensitive to school-context and emotional factors than 15-year-olds, and that relational support was relatively more salient for girls while academic motivation and structural variables played a relatively larger role among boys. Together, these findings suggest that academic and social-emotional skills resilience are supported by partially overlapping but domain-specific protective configurations, in which relational resources function as shared foundations and domain-specific factors offer differentiated support. The integration of machine learning with IPTW provides a feasible analytic pathway combining variable selection with quasi-causal estimation. Findings should be interpreted as quasi-causal estimates conditional on observed covariates, and may offer directional implications for designing supportive school environments and developmentally tailored interventions for disadvantaged students. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Why don’t the victims of bullying seek help? The effect of underestimating bystanders’ defending intentions CHEN Guanghui, ZHANG Anyi, WANG Fan, LI Chao, PEI Yongshun, CUI Wei, ZHANG Wenxin 2026, 58 (12):  2595-2606.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2595 Abstract ( 5 )   In the context of school bullying, seeking help from bystanders is an effective strategy to stop bullying and mitigate its negative consequences. Nevertheless, approximately 55% of victims do not seek help, and the reasons for this hesitation remain unclear. One possible explanation is that people often underestimate others’ willingness to intervene; in the context of bullying, such hesitation may stem from victims’ underestimation of bystanders’ defending intentions. Across four experiments, this study systematically examined whether individuals, from the victim perspective, underestimate bystanders’ willingness to defend them and how this misprediction influences their willingness to seek help. We further explored potential methods to reduce this misprediction. In Study 1a (N = 80), participants were assigned to either a victim perspective or a bystander perspective group. After reading scenarios involving physical bullying, participants reported bystanders’ willingness to defend the victim from both perspectives. Building on Study 1a, Study 1b (N = 218) expanded the design to all types of bullying (physical, verbal, relational, and cyberbullying) and included participants of different genders (male and female) and educational stages (elementary, middle, and high school). In Study 2a (N = 238), participants in the victim perspective group additionally reported their own willingness to seek help. Finally, in Study 2b (N = 432), we manipulated the mispredictions of participants in the victim perspective group through contextual cues to examine whether altering the misprediction influenced their willingness to seek help. The four experiments collectively demonstrated the presence and impact of victims’ mispredictions regarding bystanders’ defending intentions. Specifically, individuals from the victim perspective consistently underestimated bystanders’ willingness to defend (Study 1a). This misprediction was robust across different bullying types, genders, and educational stages (Study 1b). Furthermore, these mispredictions significantly and negatively predicted willingness to seek help: the greater the underestimation of bystanders’ defending intentions, the lower the victims’ willingness to seek help (Study 2a). Notably, mispredictions were malleable: when participants from the victim perspective received information cues indicating that individuals often underestimate or overestimate others’ willingness to help, their mispredictions decreased or increased accordingly, leading to corresponding change in willingness to seek help (Study 2b). This study introduces the concept of misprediction into the school bullying context, confirming that underestimating bystanders’ willingness to defend is a key reason victims hesitate to seek help. Moreover, it reveals that providing contextual cues can effectively reduce this underestimation and increase victims’ likelihood of seeking help. These findings offer a novel scientific explanation for bullying victims’ reluctance to seek help and suggest an intervention paradigm to enhance willingness to seek help effectively. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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“The onlooker sees most clearly”: Mechanism and intervention of self-distancing on depression among Chinese college students YU Si, ZHU Genlin, WANG Yilu, XU Wei 2026, 58 (12):  2607-2630.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2607 Abstract ( 2 )   Depression has become a major threat to college students’ mental health, and identifying effective and easily implementable intervention strategies has important theoretical and practical significance. Drawing on Beck’s schema theory and Beevers’ dual-process model of cognitive vulnerability to depression, the present research examined the mechanism and intervention effects of self-distancing on depression among Chinese college students from the perspective of self-reflection. Specifically, we investigated whether self-distancing predicts lower depressive symptoms through positive and negative rumination, and whether a language-based self-distancing intervention can reduce depressive symptoms in daily life. The research adopted a multi-method design comprising three studies and five substudies. Study 1 examined the association between self-distancing and depression through a cross-sectional survey and a 10-day dynamic assessment. Study 1a involved 770 college students and tested whether trait self-distancing was associated with depressive symptoms through positive and negative rumination. Study 1b involved 156 participants and used repeated daily assessments to examine whether state self-distancing predicted momentary depressed mood at both the between-person and within-person levels. Study 2 provided preliminary experimental evidence for the effectiveness of language-based self-distancing in Chinese college students. In Study 2a, 109 participants were randomly assigned to use either non-first-person language or first-person language when reflecting on negative events. In Study 2b, 75 participants repeatedly reflected on six common types of negative events, allowing us to examine the mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of baseline depressive symptoms. Study 3 implemented a 14-day micro-longitudinal self-distancing intervention among 104 college students with elevated depressive symptoms, testing whether the intervention reduced depressive symptoms and whether this effect was explained by changes in rumination. Study 1 showed that both trait and state self-distancing negatively predicted depressive symptoms or depressed mood, respectively. Positive rumination and negative rumination mediated the association between self-distancing and depression, and this mediating pattern was observed at both the between-person and within-person levels. Study 2 showed that using non-first-person language to reflect on negative events effectively reduced depressed mood. Results from the repeated self-distancing task across six types of negative events further supported the mediating role of rumination and showed that baseline depressive symptoms moderated the indirect effects. Study 3 showed that the 14-day self-distancing intervention significantly reduced negative rumination and depressive symptoms among students with elevated depressive symptoms, and these effects were maintained at follow-up. Mediation analyses further indicated that the intervention effect on depressive symptoms was mainly explained by reductions in negative rumination. Together, these findings extend the dual-process model of cognitive vulnerability to depression by suggesting that the adaptiveness of reflective processing depends, at least in part, on whether individuals adopt a self-distanced perspective. The results indicate that self-distancing may reduce depressive symptoms by changing ruminative processing, especially by decreasing negative rumination. This research provides preliminary evidence for a brief, language-based, and easily implementable self-distancing intervention, offering a practical approach for college mental health education and early prevention of depressive symptoms. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The complete self: Shape completeness enhances self-prioritization XIA Ruixue, ZHANG Naiwen, JIANG Yunhe, ZHOU Aibao 2026, 58 (12):  2631-2652.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2631 Abstract ( 3 )   Self-relevant information is crucial for human survival and development. Previous studies have shown that the congruence between the implicit meanings of stimuli and the self-concept can facilitate the processing of self-related information, suggesting that self-cognition may be shaped and activated through implicit associations within dynamic environmental contexts. In the Chinese cultural context, completeness is often associated with integrity, unity, and perfection, serving as a meaningful implicit backdrop for examining how concrete perceptual features are linked to abstract self-cognition. However, it remains unclear whether complete shapes, as concrete perceptual cues, can further enhance the processing advantage for self-related information through implicit associations. Therefore, the present study investigated whether shape completeness modulates self-prioritization in perceptual decision-making. We hypothesized that associations between self-referential labels and complete shapes would receive preferential processing, resulting in a self-complete association advantage. The present study comprised two experiments. Experiment 1 employed a 2 (Shape Completeness: complete, incomplete) × 2 (Encoding: self-related, stranger-related) × 2 (Match Type: match, mismatch) within-subjects design, combining hierarchical drift diffusion modeling and event-related potential techniques to investigate the impact of shape completeness on self-related processing and its underlying cognitive and neural mechanisms. Participants completed a perceptual matching task involving two phases. During the associative phase, they learned associations between two geometric shapes (i.e., complete and incomplete shapes) and two identity labels (i.e., self and stranger). In the subsequent shape-label matching phase, participants judged whether each presented shape-label pair matched the previously learned associations. Thirty-five college students participated in Experiment 1, and valid data from 30 participants (22 females, 8 males) were retained for analysis. EEG data were recorded from 64 scalp sites according to the standard international 10-20 system. The ERP components N1, P2, N2, early LPP, and late LPP were analyzed as indices of different temporal stages underlying the influence of shape completeness on self-related processing. Experiment 2 utilized a 2 (Group: self-complete/stranger-incomplete rule, self-incomplete/stranger-complete rule) × 2 (Encoding: self, stranger) × 2 (Match Type: match, mismatch) mixed design. Sixty college students (18 males, 42 females) were recruited and randomly assigned to two groups of 30 each. In this non-reversal design, each participant was assigned only one fixed identity-shape association, thereby excluding potential confounding effects from rule switching. The behavioral results of Experiment 1 revealed a stable self-prioritization effect: compared with stranger-related associations, self-related associations yielded shorter response times, higher accuracy, greater perceptual sensitivity, and lower response criteria. In addition, a completeness advantage was observed, such that complete-shape associations were processed more efficiently than incomplete-shape associations. More importantly, on match trials, self-complete associations exhibited shorter response times, higher accuracy, and lower response criteria than both stranger-complete and self-incomplete associations, indicating a specific processing advantage for self-complete associations. The hierarchical drift diffusion modeling results further indicated that this self-complete association advantage was supported by a faster evidence accumulation rate and shorter non-decision times. The ERP results showed that, compared with self-incomplete and stranger-complete associations, self-complete associations elicited reduced N1 amplitudes in the 80-130 ms time window, attenuated N2 amplitudes at 250-350 ms, and larger early LPP amplitudes at 450-650 ms. Given that the N1 effect may be jointly modulated by block-level mapping rules and condition-related factors, the N1 finding was interpreted cautiously as an early processing difference specific to self-complete associations. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the self-complete association advantage persisted without rule reversal, indicating that this effect was not attributable to switching costs arising from rule changes. Taken together, these results demonstrate that self-prioritization is not only reflected in the baseline preferential processing of self-related stimuli but is also modulated by the congruence between perceptual features and the self-concept. Complete-shape cues enhanced the processing priority for self-related associations, indicating that complete shapes may facilitate self-related processing by increasing the compatibility between perceptual completeness and the self-concept. This conclusion is corroborated by behavioral, diffusion-modeling, and ERP evidence, revealing that the self-complete association advantage involves faster evidence accumulation, shorter non-decision times, early processing differences, and enhanced late-stage attentional integration. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effects of time orientation on interethnic helping behavior CHEN Lanshuang, WANG Zhen, SONG Lili, ZHOU Sujun, GUAN Jian 2026, 58 (12):  2653-2669.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2653 Abstract ( 2 )   PDF (420KB) ( 0 )   Interethnic helping behavior plays a critical role in promoting interethnic interactions, exchanges, and integration, as well as in fostering a stronger sense of community for the Chinese nation. However, despite the fundamental role of time in shaping social cognition and decision making, little is known about how individuals’ time orientation affects interethnic helping. Time orientation refers to individuals’ relative attention to and preference for the past, present, and future. Previous research has largely focused on a “small-self” three-perspective model, conceptualizing time orientation in terms of the past-self, present-self, and future-self. Extending this perspective, the present research advances a “large-self” five-perspective model that incorporates two additional temporal perspectives: the ancestral-self and descendant-self. Across four experiments (N = 1, 159), we investigated how different time orientations influence interethnic helping behavior, identified the time orientation most conducive to such helping, and further examined the underlying mechanisms and boundary conditions of this effect. In Studies 1a and 1b, we used a writing task and an imagination task, respectively, to examine whether time orientation promotes interethnic helping behavior. By systematically comparing the effects of five time orientations—ancestral-self, past-self, present-self, future-self, and descendant-self—on interethnic helping behavior, we identified the orientation with the strongest promotive effect. Study 2 investigated whether self-continuity mediates the relationship between ancestral-self orientation and interethnic helping behavior. Finally, Study 3 examined whether the direction of interethnic helping (i.e., Han individuals helping ethnic minority members vs. ethnic minority members helping Han individuals) moderates the effect of ancestral-self orientation on interethnic helping behavior. The results showed that participants in all five time-orientation groups (ancestral-self, past-self, present-self, future-self, descendant-self) reported significantly greater intentions to engage in interethnic helping, monetary helping, and time-based helping than those in the control group. Among the five orientations, ancestral-self orientation exerted the strongest promotive effects across all three dependent outcomes. Furthermore, ancestral-self orientation promoted interethnic helping behavior by enhancing individuals’ sense of past self-continuity. The direction of interethnic helping significantly moderated this mediation process. Specifically, the mediating effect of past self-continuity emerged when Han individuals helped ethnic minority individuals, but not when ethnic minority individuals helped Han individuals. In contrast, the direction of interethnic helping did not significantly moderate the direct effect of ancestral-self orientation on interethnic helping behavior. This research has the following contributions. First, by extending the conceptualization of time orientation from the traditional “small-self” three-perspective model to a “large-self” five-perspective model, we provide a more culturally adaptive framework for understanding the multidimensional structure of time orientation. Second, by systematically comparing the effects of five time orientations, we demonstrate the unique advantage of ancestral-self orientation in promoting interethnic helping behavior. Third, drawing on continuity motivation theory, we reveal past self-continuity as a mediator of the relationship between ancestral-self orientation and interethnic helping behavior, thereby advancing our understanding of how time orientation influences interethnic helping behavior. Fourth, we identify the direction of interethnic helping as an important boundary condition: the mediating effect of past self-continuity emerges when Han individuals help ethnic minority individuals but not when ethnic minority individuals help Han individuals. In summary, these findings extend the psychological study of time orientation and offer theoretical and practical insights into promoting ethnic unity and strengthening a sense of community for the Chinese nation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The attitude-behavior gap in energy conservation: Inhibitory pathways of social norm conflict and the moderating role of goal self-efficacy YIN Xile, HE Linyan, ZHOU Huijuan, CHEN Siyu, ZHANG Feng 2026, 58 (12):  2670-2684.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.2670 Abstract ( 3 )   PDF (286KB) ( 0 )   Social norms are widely used as low-cost nudges to promote pro-environmental behavior, including energy conservation. Both injunctive norms (what people ought to do) and descriptive norms (what most people actually do) significantly influence energy-saving behavior. However, residential energy conservation is often marked by a pervasive attitude-behavior gap, reflected in a conflict between high (positive) injunctive norms and low (negative) descriptive norms. While some interventions deliberately highlight this norm conflict to motivate action, emerging evidence suggests that doing so may backfire, inhibiting rather than promoting energy-saving behavior. Previous research, primarily grounded in the Focus Theory of Normative Conduct, has documented this negative effect but lacks a deep examination of the underlying psychological mechanisms. Integrating the Focus Theory of Normative Conduct with Norm Activation Theory, this study proposed a dual-mediator model, arguing that norm conflict suppresses energy-saving behavior by simultaneously reducing personal responsibility and eliciting psychological reactance. Furthermore, we hypothesized that goal self-efficacy would buffer this inhibitory effect. A multi-method approach involving five experimental studies (two field studies and three scenario-based experiments) was employed to test the hypotheses across different energy-saving contexts: stair use, intentions to use low-carbon transportation, and intentions to take leftovers home. Study 1 (field experiment, N = 2906) used a one-factor design (norm: control vs. high injunctive norm vs. norm conflict) to examine the effect of norm conflict on actual stair-use behavior. Study 2 (scenario experiment, N = 225) utilized a one-factor between-subjects design (control vs. high injunctive norm vs. norm conflict) to investigate the mediating roles of personal responsibility and psychological reactance in intentions to use low-carbon transportation. Study 3 employed a manipulation-of-mediator design: Studies 3a (N = 200) and 3b (N = 200) each used a 2 (norm: high injunctive vs. conflict) x 2 (mediator: baseline vs. enhanced reactance/responsibility) factorial design to causally test the respective mediating pathways. Study 4 (N = 300) used a 2 (norm: high injunctive vs. conflict) x 2 (goal self-efficacy: high vs. low) between-subjects design to explore the moderating role of goal self-efficacy in intentions to take leftovers home. Finally, Study 5 returned to the field stair-use paradigm and added a “norm conflict + high goal self-efficacy” condition (N = 797) to assess changes in actual behavior following an efficacy-enhancing message. Data were analyzed using analyses of variance (ANOVAs), chi-square tests, bootstrap mediation analyses, and moderated mediation analyses. The findings consistently demonstrated a significant inhibitory effect of social norm conflict on energy-saving behavior and intentions across contexts. Specifically, in Study 1, the stair-use rate in the norm conflict condition (20.20%) was significantly lower than those in both the high injunctive norm (32.29%) and control (32.96%) conditions. Study 2 supported the proposed dual mediation pathways: norm conflict decreased personal responsibility and increased psychological reactance, which, in turn, reduced energy-saving intentions. The causal roles of these mediators were supported by the manipulation-of-mediator design in Study 3. Study 4 revealed that goal self-efficacy significantly moderated the effect of norm conflict: high efficacy buffered the negative effect of norm conflict on responsibility and consequently on behavioral intention, but did not significantly alleviate the heightened psychological reactance elicited by norm conflict. Crucially, the field experiment in Study 5 showed that introducing a high efficacy message alongside norm conflict information mitigated the negative effect (increasing the stair-use rate from 20.20% in the norm conflict condition to 36.76%). The present research advances theory by integrating the Focus Theory of Normative Conduct with Norm Activation Theory to identify a dual-pathway (reduced personal responsibility and increased psychological reactance) through which injunctive-descriptive norm conflict undermines energy-saving behavior. It further identifies goal self-efficacy as a key boundary condition that primarily preserves personal responsibility, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of norm conflict. Practically, these findings suggest that interventions should avoid messages emphasizing widespread inaction, and should instead incorporate concrete efficacy cues (e.g., quantifiable personal contributions or demonstrable peer influence) to address the dilemma created by conflicting norms. References | Related Articles | Metrics