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20 January 2025, Volume 57 Issue 1 Previous Issue   
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Reports of Empirical Studies
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Reports of Empirical Studies

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Encoding types and narrative coherence modulate the impact of emotions on temporal order memory XIA Lianxiang, LIU Kaige, LI Xinyu, YE Qun 2025, 57 (1):  1-17.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0001 Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (187KB) ( 1 )   This study explored how encoding types and emotion affect temporal order memory through three experiments. Central to this investigation is the notion that while emotions heighten the recall of core event details, they often impair the memory of peripheral details and their sequence. Temporal order memory, vital for linking various memory items, is particularly vulnerable to emotional disruption. However, narrative-based stimuli, which involve storylines, appear to fortify this type of memory against negative emotions by shifting focus from inter-item associations to intra-item coherence. Experiment 1 used picture stimuli within a 2 (encoding type: narrative encoding/discrete encoding) × 3 (emotional valence: positive/negative/neutral) mixed design. Encoding type was a between-subjects variable, with participants divided into two groups, while emotional valence was a within-subjects variable. Results showed that those in the narrative encoding group maintained stable accuracy in temporal order memory across all emotional valences. Conversely, the discrete encoding group exhibited notable declines in temporal memory accuracy when exposed to negative emotions, highlighting that narrative context can shield memory from emotional disruptions. Experiment 2 replicated the previous findings using word stimuli, focusing on two emotional valences: neutral and negative. Similar to Experiment 1, narrative encoding proved effective in protecting temporal order memory from the detrimental effects of negative emotions. Participants again showed higher accuracy in recalling the order of words when using narrative encoding, even under negative emotional conditions, reinforcing the protective role of narrative encoding. Experiment 3 delved deeper into the influence of narrative coherence on the efficacy of narrative encoding. Using word stimuli, a within-subject design compared high and low coherence levels under negative and neutral emotional conditions. The findings indicated that narrative coherence significantly enhances the protective effect of narrative encoding. When the narrative was coherent, participants' temporal order memory was more resilient to negative emotional interference. Conversely, low coherence narratives did not provide the same level of protection, underlining the importance of coherence in narrative-based memory encoding. Throughout the study, we consistently demonstrated that negative emotions disrupt temporal order memory. However, narrative encoding emerged as a powerful mechanism to counteract this effect, especially when the narrative is coherent and well-constructed. These findings suggest that incorporating narrative frameworks could be an effective strategy to buffer against the impairing effects of emotions on memory functions. This has potential applications in educational and cognitive-behavioral strategies, where storytelling and structured narratives could enhance learning and information retention even in emotionally charged contexts. Overall, the study provides robust evidence that narrative encoding benefits the preservation of temporal order memory against emotional disruptions. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of different types of academic stress on subcomponents of executive function in high school students of different grades MA Chao, WANG Yanyun, FU Junjun, ZHAO Xin 2025, 57 (1):  18-35.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0018 Abstract ( 9 )   PDF (1252KB) ( 2 )   Academic stress, as the most universally experienced potential risk factor during adolescence, has a significant impact on the development of executive function in high school students. However, existing research exploring the relationship between academic stress and executive function either fails to account for the multidimensional nature of academic stress or overlooks the separability of executive function, leading to numerous discrepancies in research conclusions. To resolve the controversies present in existing research, a systematic investigation of the role of different types of academic stress (parental stress, teacher stress, social stress, and self-imposed stress) on various components of executive function was performed, and whether this impact pattern changes as students advance through high school grades was assessed. A total of 985 students from grades 10 to 12 completed academic stress questionnaires and computerized executive function tasks. Interference inhibition and response inhibition were measured using the Stroop and Go/No-go tasks, respectively. The capacity of working memory was assessed using digit span forward and backward tasks, while the working memory-updating ability was evaluated using simple digit-updating tasks (update 1750) and complex digit-updating tasks (update 750). The students' attention-switching ability was examined using digit-switching tasks. Finally, the effects of different types of academic stress on the subcomponents of executive function in high school students of different grades were explored using correlational analysis and structural equation modeling methods. The results found that, compared to teacher and social stress, parental stress is the most significant negative predictor of various components of executive function in high school students. Additionally, as students progress through high school, the negative predictive effects of parental and teacher stress on the components of executive function gradually increase, while the negative predictive effect of social stress gradually decreases. In contrast, self-imposed stress showed a positive predictive effect on high school students' interference inhibition, response inhibition, and attention-switching capabilities, which intensified with advancing grades. These results indicate that different types of academic stress play varying roles in the subcomponents of executive function among high school students, and that this impact pattern changes as students advance through high school grades. Specifically, external stress, particularly parental and teacher stress, has a more significant negative impact on the executive functions of high school students, and this effect intensifies at higher grades. Conversely, self-imposed stress exhibits positive benefits on executive function, which also increase with advancing grades. Overall, the conclusions of this study provide theoretical and practical bases to help future educators to devise more effective strategies for helping high school students cope with academic stress. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of cognitive control on displaced aggressive behavior in junior high school students: Situation boundary conditions of provocation and trigger LIN Shuang, CHENG Gonglu, LIU Wen, BAI Xuejun 2025, 57 (1):  36-57.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0036 Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (188KB) ( 4 )   Displaced aggressive behavior occurs when a person is provoked, is unwilling or unable to retaliate against the original provocateur, and subsequently attacks against a seemingly innocent target. Displaced aggressive behavior occurs in an inverse U tendency and arrives at its peak during the adolescence period. Junior high school students easily exhibit displaced aggressive behavior after being provoked at schools and families, and more importantly, their displaced aggressive behaviors may appear after a long time. Therefore, it is a useful beginning to find protective factors of inhibition displaced aggressive behavior. The Theoretical Model of Triggered Displaced Aggression stressed that displaced aggressive behavior was started by provocation with a series of cognitive processes as follows, such as hostile attribution. From this perspective, inhibiting inner negative cognition including proactive cognitive control and reactive cognitive control is useful for reducing displaced aggressive behavior. Unfortunately, the role of cognitive control is limited and may collapse if the intensity the provocation or trigger is beyond cognitive control. In order to reduce junior high school students' displaced aggressive behavior, the current study conducted three experiments to explore the influence of cognitive control on displaced aggressive behavior, meanwhile investigating whether cognitive control has situation boundary conditions of provocation and trigger. In Experiment 1, we recruited 30 junior high school students (excluding 4 invalid data) to complete two tasks repeatedly under the 3(type of general cognitive control: baseline, proactive, reactive)×2(provocation: high, low) within-subjects design. To prime the students' general cognitive control, we employed the AXCPT task over three weeks. In the first week, students completed the baseline task, which involved identifying the target clue (letter A) and the non-target clue (letter B). The target probe was the letter X, while the non-target probe was the letter Y. The required response for the students was the A-X combination. In the subsequent weeks, the students completed the proactive and reactive tasks in a random order. Then, students completed the revised Competitive Reaction Time task after the AXCPT task. The Competitive Reaction Time task consisted of two stages. In the first stage, students were exposed to noise and unable to retaliate. In the high-provocation condition, 80% of the trials had 105dB noise, while 20% had 70dB noise. Conversely, in the low-provocation condition, 20% of the trials had 105dB noise, and 80% had 70dB noise. In the second stage, students had the option to harm an innocent individual by choosing a noise level from low provocation and high provocation. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that priming general cognitive control did not reduce displaced aggressive behavior, but the reaction time for aggressive behavior was significantly lower in the proactive cognitive control condition compared to the baseline and reactive cognitive control conditions. In Experiment 2, we recruited 42 junior high school students (excluding 2 invalid data) to complete two tasks repeatedly under the 3 (type of specific cognitive control: baseline, proactive, reactive) × 2 (provocation: high, low) within-subjects design. The AXCPT materials were modified to manipulate special prime effects using situational materials associated with displaced aggression. We used provocative situations as the targeted clue and non-provocation situations as the non-targeted clue. The targeted probe was non-aggressive behavior, while the non-targeted probe was displaced aggressive behavior. The same procedure from Experiment 1 was used to explore displaced aggressive behavior. The results of Experiment 2 showed that, in both specific proactive cognitive control condition and reactive cognitive control condition, displaced aggressive behavior was significantly lower than in the baseline condition, for both low and high provocative situations. In Experiment 3, we recruited 80 junior high school students (excluding 8 invalid data) to complete two tasks repeatedly under the 3 (type of specific cognitive control: baseline, proactive, reactive) × 2 (provocation: high, low) × 2 (trigger: high, low) mixed design, provocation as a between-subjects factor. We added a triggered situation into the Competitive Reaction Time task, where participants could see an evaluation with a score from innocent before the proactive stage. Specifically, in the high trigger condition, a negative evaluation with a low score was displayed, while in the low trigger condition, a positive evaluation with a high score was displayed. The results of Experiment 3 revealed a significant interaction among specific cognitive control, provocative situations, and triggered situations. In the situation of provocation and trigger could effectively modulate the impact of specific cognitive control on displaced aggressive behavior. Moreover, in the high-provocation-high- trigger situation and high-provocation-low-trigger situation, the proportion of aggression reduced from baseline by proactive control was significantly higher than the proportion of aggression reduced from baseline by reactive control. However, in the low-provocation-high-trigger situation and low-provocation-low-trigger situation, there was no significant difference between the proportion of aggression reduced from baseline by reactive control and the proportion of aggression reduced from baseline by proactive control. Furthermore, in the high-provocation-high-trigger situation, the proportion of aggression reduced from baseline by proactive control was the highest among all conditions. These results indicated that specific cognitive control could effectively inhibit displaced aggressive behavior among junior high school students, with the situation boundary of proactive control occurring in the high-provocation-high-trigger situation. The current study suggested that junior high school students' specific cognitive control could effectively inhibit displaced aggressive behavior, and both specific proactive cognitive control and reactive cognitive control could reduce displaced aggressive behavior. In addition, there was situation boundary condition of specific cognitive control to inhibit displaced aggressive behavior, in which the situation boundary condition of specific proactive cognitive control appears in the high-provocation-high-trigger situation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The associations between parent-child value conflict in filial piety and adolescent depressive symptoms GUO Xiaolin, ZHANG Yifan, GUAN Yuelin, LUO Liang 2025, 57 (1):  58-70.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0058 Abstract ( 13 )   PDF (395KB) ( 2 )   As one of the core values of Chinese culture, filial piety is an important value norm for maintaining parent?child relationships and supporting family functioning, which has an important impact on the well-being of children. The value of filial piety may be conflictive between the parents and children in a family, and its psychological influences on children are unknown. Given that depression is a prominent and frequent emotional problem in adolescents and that family pressure stemming from the parent?child relationship is a major risk factor for adolescent depression, this study aimed to explore the relationship between parent?child value conflict in filial piety and adolescent depression. Given that adolescents tend to take their same-sex parents as role models, parent and child gender differences were also considered. Longitudinal data from 3321 adolescents (1692 boys, 1629 girls; average age = 10.87 ± 0.36 years) and their fathers and mothers were collected when the adolescents were in 5th and 7th grades. In the first wave, after providing informed consent, both the adolescents and their fathers and mothers reported their concept of filial piety. In the second wave, both adolescents and their fathers and mothers reported their levels of depression. Polynomial regression and response surface analysis were used to explore the relationship between parent?child value conflict in filial piety and adolescent depression. SPSS 22.0, Mplus 7.1, and MATLAB 2022b were used to analyze the data. The results revealed that (1) when parents' and adolescents' filial piety were not conflictive, the levels of fathers' and sons' reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial piety, mothers' and sons' reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial piety, fathers' and daughters' reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial piety and mothers' and daughters' reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial piety did not significantly predict adolescents' depression. (2) When parents' and adolescents' filial piety were conflictive, the direction of value conflict between fathers' and sons' reciprocal filial piety predicted the sons' depression. The direction of value conflict between fathers' and daughters' reciprocal filial piety, fathers' and daughters' authoritarian filial piety, mothers' and daughters' reciprocal filial piety and mothers' and daughters' authoritarian filial piety predicted the daughters' depression. Moreover, the degree of value conflict between fathers' and sons' authoritarian filial piety predicted sons' depression. The degree of value conflict between fathers' and daughters' authoritarian filial piety, mothers' and daughters' reciprocal filial piety and mothers' and daughters' authoritarian filial piety predicted the daughters' depression. The results indicate that when parents and children reach a consensus on filial piety, the type and level of filial piety are not related to adolescents' depression, but the value conflict between fathers' and sons' filial piety and parents' and daughters' filial piety may induce adolescents' depression. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Aging of personality judgment ability: The moderating role of information richness LIU Xueping, HUAI Qichen, GONG Xianmin, PENG Huamao 2025, 57 (1):  71-83.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0071 Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (433KB) ( 1 )   Personality judgment, the assessment of others' personalities, is a fundamental social cognitive ability that significantly impacts individuals' social functioning. Does this ability differ between younger and older adults? While previous research has primarily focused on the accuracy of personality judgment across ages, the present study delved deeper into two distinct components of this accuracy -- normative accuracy and distinctive accuracy -- to gain a more comprehensive understanding of age-related variations in personality judgment. We hypothesized that older adults may possess an advantage in normative accuracy due to their richer life experiences and social knowledge related to different groups (H1). However, cognitive declines associated with aging may hinder their ability to gather and utilize individual-specific personality information in specific contexts, resulting in decreased distinctive accuracy. Furthermore, we investigated how the richness of personality-relevant information available within the same time duration moderates the age differences in personality judgment. We predicted that younger adults would be more proficient in utilizing incremental information to improve their distinctive accuracy, while older adults' cognitive declines would limit their proficiency in doing so, thereby widening the gap in distinctive accuracy between the two age groups (H2). Testing these hypotheses will advance our understanding of age differences in personality judgment. To achieve these objectives, we adopted a 2 (age group of judge: older and younger) × 3 (richness of information: unitary, medium, and rich) between-subject experimental design. A total of 81 older participants (aged 60~83 years, M ± SD = 66.67 ± 4.44) and 82 younger participants (aged 18~27 years, M ± SD = 21.98 ± 2.12) were recruited to serve as judges. They watched the self-introduction videos of 24 target characters presented in a sequence, including 12 older adults and 12 younger adults. Each self-introduction video had three versions with varying richness of information, which was manipulated by changing the number of information modality: unitary (text/subtitle only), medium (text/subtitle and sound), and rich (text/subtitle, sound, and image). After each video, participants evaluated the Big Five personality traits of the target in the video. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multilevel linear modeling analyses were performed to investigate the effects of age group of the judge and information richness on the overall personality judgment accuracy, normative accuracy, and distinctive accuracy. The results revealed that older adults exhibited higher overall personality judgment accuracy than younger adults, which was mainly due to their superior normative accuracy, supporting H1. Furthermore, the overall personality judgment accuracy improved with increasing information richness. Information richness moderated the age differences in distinctive accuracy, but not normative accuracy. Specifically, older adults performed worse than younger adults when presented with videos containing only text/subtitle (i.e., in the unitary information condition). However, older adults performed similarly well as younger adults when presented with videos containing text/subtitle and sound (i.e., in the medium information condition) or videos containing text/subtitle, sound, and image (i.e., in the rich information condition). Contradicting with H2, the results revealed that older and younger adults' discrepancy in distinctive accuracy narrowed with increasing information richness. Overall, the results indicate that age-related declines in basic cognitive abilities did not diminish older adults' social cognitive ability for personality judgment. Social knowledge and life experiences might play a crucial role in enhancing the personality judgment accuracy of older adults via improving their normative accuracy. Additionally, older adults demonstrated the ability to utilize incremental personality-related information to improve their distinctive accuracy and compensate for their gaps in distinctive accuracy compared to younger adults. These findings highlight the importance of valuing and considering the opinions of older adults in social practices, such as personnel selection, where accurate personality judgment is needed. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Variability in cortisol awakening response related to sleep efficiency and its relationship with trait anxiety and psychological resilience YANG Zijian, ZHAO Xiaolin, GUO Kaige, LUO Jiahao, DU Tengfei, ZHANG Yajie, HU Yueqin, YANG Juan 2025, 57 (1):  84-99.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0084 Abstract ( 7 )   PDF (489KB) ( 1 )   Cortisol awakening response (CAR) is closely associated with individual mental health. Traditional studies have used the mean value of CAR over several days to explore this relationship. However, their conclusions have been highly inconsistent due to the influence of state-dependent factors, such as sleep. Therefore, this study introduces CAR variability across multiple days as a novel measure to quantify CAR and investigates its relationship with mental health while regarding trait anxiety and psychological resilience as key variables under natural sleep observation and sleep deprivation manipulation scenarios. This study hypothesized that under the natural sleep condition, a smaller CAR variability reflects positive mental health characteristics, specifically higher psychological resilience scores and lower trait anxiety scores, while under the sleep deprivation condition, a greater CAR variability reflects positive mental health characteristics. Two experiments were conducted to test these hypotheses. In Experiment 1, the CAR variability of 28 participants was reduced by decreasing sleep efficiency variability under natural sleep conditions. In Experiment 2, 40 participants experienced a full night of sleep deprivation following 2 natural sleep days to increase their CAR variability. All participants wore a sleep wristwatch to assess their sleep efficiency during the experimental period and provided 4 saliva samples at awakening and at 30, 45, and 60 minutes post-awakening to assess their CAR. The trait anxiety inventory and the Connor-Davidson resilience scale were used as key variables reflecting individual mental health. The relationship between CAR variability over multiple days and trait anxiety/psychological resilience was then examined. Experiment 1 found a significant positive correlation between the variability of participants' subjective sleep efficiency over three days and their CAR variability. Additionally, a significant positive correlation was observed between CAR variability and trait anxiety scores over the three days, indicating that a smaller CAR variability in a stable environment is associated with lower levels of trait anxiety. Experiment 2 found no significant differences in CAR during the first two natural sleep days. However, on the third day, following a full night of sleep deprivation, CAR showed a marked blunting, with post-deprivation CAR levels being significantly lower than those recorded on the preceding two natural sleep days. Experiment 2 also found a significant positive correlation between CAR variability following sleep deprivation and psychological resilience, and this significant correlation was independent of daily stress factors. Therefore, a higher CAR variability in a changing environment is associated with higher levels of psychological resilience. When using the traditional CAR mean as a measure to explore its relationship with trait anxiety and psychological resilience, no significant correlations were found in either experiment. These results suggest that in addition to mean CAR, CAR variability can be regarded as an effective physiological indicator for measuring mental health. Smaller CAR variability in stable environments is associated with lower levels of trait anxiety, while greater CAR variability in more variable environments is associated with higher levels of psychological resilience. This study emphasizes the importance of considering CAR variability over multiple days to understand how individuals adapt to daily stressors and challenges, thus providing new perspectives and potential approaches for promoting mental health and designing effective intervention strategies in the future. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Risky decision-making in bipolar disorder: Evidence from a three-level meta-analysis LU Jiaqi, LI Yusi, HE Guibing 2025, 57 (1):  100-124.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0100 Abstract ( 6 )   Bipolar disorder (BD), one of six major mental disorders in China, manifests as recurrent episodes of (hypo)mania and major depression. Recently, researchers have increasingly focused on the cognitive and behavioral characteristics of BD patients. Notably, increased risk-taking might emerge as a typical symptom of BD, supported by evidence from BD patients' daily behaviors, empirical research, and neuroimaging studies. However, contradictory findings have been reported, with some studies failing to find differences in risk preferences between BD patients and healthy controls (HCs) and a few studies even indicating increased risk aversion among BD patients. Consequently, whether and to what extent BD is associated with alterations in risk preference remain unclear. Thus, this study involved a three-level meta-analysis to examine the relationship between BD and risky decision-making, encompassing studies utilizing various measures of risky decision-making (i.e., risk attitude scales, behavioral tasks, and daily risk behaviors). Moreover, we aimed to uncover potential moderators, including sample and measurement characteristics, to better address inconsistent findings. A systematic literature search was conducted with the Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), and WFD (Wan Fang Data) databases up to April 15, 2024, to identify studies investigating risky decision-making in BD patients and HCs. We calculated the standard mean differences (Hedges' g) in risky decision-making between BD patients and HCs. We conducted a three-level random-effects meta-analysis, including heterogeneity analysis, moderation analyses for sample and measurement characteristics, and assessments of publication bias. Across 176 effect sizes in 71 cross-sectional studies, BD patients exhibited greater risk-seeking than HCs (Hedges' g = 0.301), regardless of whether it was measured via risk attitude scales (Hedges' g = 0.624), behavioral tasks (Hedges' g = 0.252) or daily risk behaviors (Hedges' g = 0.312). Moreover, this difference was also moderated by age (β = 0.009) and mood phase, where BD patients in any mood phase preferred more risk-seeking than HCs (euthymic: Hedges' g = 0.245; (hypo)mania: Hedges' g = 0.604; major depression: Hedges' g = 0.417). For behavioral tasks, age (β = 0.012) and region were found to have significant moderating effects. Specifically, significant effect sizes were observed for samples originating from Europe (Hedges' g = 0.419) and South America (Hedges' g = 0.420). Moreover, effect sizes were significant in studies using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Hedges' g = 0.396) and Cambridge Gambling Task (Hedges' g = 0.220), and effect sizes in IGT studies were larger than in those employing the Classic Risky Choice Tasks. Regarding. With respect to daily attitudes/behaviors, mood phase was identified as a significant moderator. Notably, effect sizes for (hypo)manic patients (Hedges' g = 0.747) were significantly larger than those for euthymic patients. Moreover, compared with HCs, BD patients exhibited increased risk-seeking across the health (Hedges' g = 0.308), financial (Hedges' g = 0.331), and overall attitude (Hedges' g = 0.733) domains. This study comprehensively explored the relationship between BD and risky decision-making via various measures, revealing a consistent pattern of increased risk-seeking among BD patients. These findings suggest that increased risk-taking might be a noteworthy symptom of BD and propose potential utility for its application in clinical management and psychoeducation. Furthermore, future studies should consider factors such as mood phase and task type and try to uncover the underlying psychological mechanisms through which BD affects risky decision-making. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Influence of interpersonal distance and the creativity of strategies on interpersonal emotion regulation YAO Yujia, YAN Zhiyue, LIN Huihui, CHEN Jingquan, XUAN Yuyang 2025, 57 (1):  125-134.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0125 Abstract ( 4 )   PDF (417KB) ( 1 )   Emotional regulation is not a lonely individual struggle; rather, it happens in the context of relationships. Interpersonal emotional regulation is an important form of emotional regulation. Social baseline theory suggests that interpersonal distance is partly a function of the energy benefits conferred by social relationships and that when intimacy is maintained or re-established, the brain becomes less alert to potential threats. Prior experience makes individuals prefer to receive social support from friends rather than strangers, and social support provided by friends has a more beneficial effect on interpersonal emotional regulation. Creative cognitive reappraisal is a more effective cognitive reappraisal strategy than ordinary cognitive reappraisal is. However, little is known about the effects of the creativity of cognitive reappraisal strategies and interpersonal distance on interpersonal emotional regulation. Therefore, we manipulated the interpersonal distance and creativity of strategy in the context of interpersonal emotion regulation and examined the question “when you are comforted, which is more important: ‘the person who is comforting you' or ‘the words they use'?”. In this study, we used behaviour experiments and event-related potential (ERP) techniques and adapted 2 (interpersonal distance: friend, stranger) × 2 (the creativity of strategies: creative cognitive reappraisal, ordinary cognitive reappraisal) to examine the influence of interpersonal distance and cognitive reappraisal creativity on interpersonal emotional regulation. In the experiment, the participants were primed with negative picture stimuli and then used strategies involving objects with different interpersonal distances to regulate their negative emotions. The participants were asked to record their emotional valence and emotional arousal after engaging in emotional regulation, and the strategies involving different objects were all from the same strategy pack. The experiment included 4 conditions, with 30 trials for each condition, for a total of 120 trials. In addition, the Stimulus-Preceding Negativity (SPN) and Late Positive Potential (LPP) were detected in this study to further test the effect on interpersonal emotional regulation. This study involved a behavioural experiment via a scenario simulation method and ERP techniques. The results are as follows. The emotional valence of participants was significantly greater after using the strategies provided by friends than after using those provided by strangers. Regardless of whether the provider of a certain strategy was a friend or a stranger, participants using the creative cognitive reappraisal strategy experienced significantly greater emotion valence and arousal than did those using the ordinary cognitive reappraisal strategy. Compared with the ordinary cognitive reappraisal strategy, the creative cognitive reappraisal strategy evoked larger LPP and SPN waves. In addition, when all the strategies used were creative cognitive reappraisal strategies, the SPN amplitude and self-reported valence were greater when the strategy was provided by a friend. However, when all the strategies used were ordinary cognitive reappraisal strategies, the differences in SPN and the valence of interpersonal distance were no longer significant. The results showed that strategies provided by friends have greater effects on interpersonal emotional regulation than those provided by strangers do. Compared with ordinary cognitive reappraisal strategies, creative cognitive reappraisal strategies lead to better interpersonal emotional regulation. The effect of interpersonal distance is more important in the context of a creative cognitive reappraisal strategy. Interpersonal distance may have a greater influence on the effect of interpersonal emotional regulation in the context of creative cognitive reappraisal strategies. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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How “slacking off” sparks innovation: Evidence from a scenario experiment and a survey study on curvilinear mediation of recovery experience XU Shiyong, YANG Chunmeng, LI Chaoping, LI Hairong 2025, 57 (1):  135-151.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0135 Abstract ( 6 )   PDF (243KB) ( 1 )   In the digital economy era, employees' time theft—defined as engaging in unapproved non-work-related activities during work hours—has become increasingly hidden and widespread. Most prior studies have assumed that such behavior negatively impacts performance, focusing on mechanisms to reduce time theft within organizations. However, few have considered the potential positive effects of time theft or the conditions under which it may yield positive or negative outcomes. Drawing on the conservation of resources theory, this study examines the “too-much-of-a-good-thing” effect of time theft and explores how and under what circumstances it influences innovative behavior through recovery experience. Additionally, we investigate the moderating role of mindfulness to identify the boundary conditions of time theft's effects. To ensure both internal and external validity, we adopted a combination of experimental study (study 1) and survey study (study 2). In study 1, we utilized a single-factor, three-level between-subjects design, randomly assigning 182 participants to one of three conditions. Participants first assessed their mindfulness traits and provided demographic information. They were then instructed to recall and describe a recent workplace time theft incident at one of three levels (high, medium, or low). Afterward, they completed measures of mindfulness and recovery experience and a manipulation check. In study 2, we used a multi-wave, multi-source design to collect data from 633 employees. The survey was conducted in three phases, with a one-month interval between each phase. In the end, we obtained a leader-employee matched dataset with 503 observations across all three waves to test the proposed model. The experimental data (study 1) showed that participants in the medium-level time theft group reported significantly higher recovery experience compared to those in the low- and high-level time theft conditions. The results also suggested that mindfulness moderated the relationship between time theft and recovery experience. Employees with higher mindfulness experienced a stronger positive effect of time theft on recovery. In study 2, given that the data was nested (i.e., multiple employees' innovative behavior was assessed by the same leader), we employed the Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) to test our hypotheses. The results confirmed the inverted U-shaped relationship between time theft and recovery experience, and this effect was moderated by mindfulness. Additionally, following established methodologies, we used the “instantaneous indirect effect approach” to examine the indirect effects of time theft on innovative behavior through recovery experience. To further assess these indirect effects, we conducted a Monte Carlo simulation with 20, 000 replications to generate 95% confidence intervals in R 4.2. The findings suggested that time theft influenced innovative behavior through recovery experience, with mindfulness strengthening the mediating effect. Drawing on the conservation of resources theory, we explored how time theft influenced innovative behavior through recovery experience. We also examined the moderating role of mindfulness. Our study contributes to the existing literature in the following ways. First, by investigating the effect of time theft on employee innovation, we offered a novel perspective that time theft, rather than being solely detrimental, can also provide benefits to organizations. Second, we identified the curvilinear mediation effect of recovery experience, suggesting that time theft and recovery exhibited an inverted U-shaped relationship, which indirectly influenced innovative behavior. Finally, we highlighted both the positive effects and potential costs of mindfulness as a moderator between time theft, recovery experience, and innovation, thus clarifying the boundary conditions under which time theft affected recovery experience. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The “diminished enjoyment with the best deal” effect: How does frugal mindset impact the anticipated enjoyment and experiential evaluation in food consumption? CHEN Siyun, XIONG Jiwei, PENG Kaiping 2025, 57 (1):  152-172.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0152 Abstract ( 5 )   PDF (384KB) ( 1 )   The frugal mindset is a widely prevalent cognitive pattern, yet little is known about how the frugal mindset affects individual psychology and behavior. Based on six studies and a supplementary meta-analysis, this article unveils the negative effect of a frugal mindset on anticipated enjoyment and experiential evaluation in the context of food consumption. We refer to this effect as the “diminished enjoyment with the best deal” effect. In the current research, we also propose and test the underlying mechanism—cognitive depletion—that drives the core effect. Moreover, two boundary conditions (i.e., the cost of getting the best deal and mindfulness intervention) are identified. Specifically, Study 1 analyzed secondary data from the large American food delivery platform GRUBHUB, revealing a negative correlation between the frugal mindset and food taste rating. Study 2 simulated the online food ordering scenario and provided causal evidence for the negative impact of a frugal mindset on the expected enjoyment of food. Study 3 conducted a field experiment under the guise of a taste-testing event, confirming that the frugal mindset diminishes individuals' anticipated enjoyment of chocolate and leads to lower overall evaluation after consuming chocolate. Moving forward, Study 4 validated the mediating role of cognitive resource depletion in the impact of the frugal mindset on the anticipated enjoyment of fruit and vegetable salad. These findings provided consistent support for the proposed core effect. Furthermore, Studies 5 and 6 aimed to explore the situations in which the core effect would be intensified or attenuated. In particular, Study 5 identified a boundary condition—the cost of getting the best deal, showing that when the cost of getting the best deal is higher, the negative impact of the frugal mindset on the anticipated enjoyment of cake is more pronounced. Study 6 further provided an intervention to alleviate the core effect, demonstrating that mindfulness intervention weakens the negative impact of the frugal mindset on the anticipated enjoyment of hotpot. This occurs because mindfulness intervention assists in recovering one's cognitive depletion induced by the frugal mindset. Finally, employing the single paper meta-analysis (SPM) as a supplementary analysis, the study confirmed the robust effects of the frugal mindset on anticipated food enjoyment and experiential evaluation. The current research not only enriches and expands theoretical studies on the frugal mindset and cognitive resources but also offers practical implications for food marketing and dietary well-being. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Theory and History of Psychology

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Persons are not things: Rejuvenating social cognition DONG Da, CHEN Wei 2025, 57 (1):  173-189.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0173 Abstract ( 7 )   The dominant classical conceptual toolkits of social cognition primarily originate from the creations of scientists or philosophers of cognitive sciences in the 1980s. From the perspective of long-term history, the ongoing theoretical disputes in social cognition today are an extension of broader struggles between two generations of cognitive sciences. Social cognition, having embraced the fundamental tenets of cognitivism, also wholly incorporates its attendant theoretical burdens. As social psychology transitions into a sub-domain of information processing psychology, its historical route during the early periods of social cognition—which predates the cognitive revolution of 1956—has been inadvertently discarded and destroyed. This has led to the drastic theoretical ramification of “person” perception being forcibly diminished to “thing” perception. “Social cognition” has not always had the theoretical difficulty of devaluing persons to things, at least not during its early periods. This paper seeks to revisit and refine the “persons are not things” thesis (The PANT Thesis) from the early period of social cognition, aiming to offer a constructive proposal to address the theoretical challenges facing contemporary social cognition mainly through the lens of Fritz Heider's object theory. This proposal emerges not simply out of speculative retrospection, but is problem-oriented and has significant reciprocated ties with fresh evidence from cognitive neuroscience. Although this proposal has indeed revived the traditional historical route and classic thesis of early social cognition predating the 1956 cognitive revolution, it has comprehensively incorporated the debates and attempts to transcend the disputes spanning over three decades between two generations of cognitive sciences, indeed. The abstraction principle of cognition in information processing psychology has always been unable to be well applied to “social” cognition. If the abstraction principle of cognition applies to a universal object and differentiates the living/animate person and the non-living/inanimate thing as distinctive sub-categories of objects, it should naturally extend to the sub-domain of social cognition. However, this abstraction principle is primarily derived from the abstraction of non-living objects (things, machines, computers). Accordingly, its application to living objects (persons, agents) merely appends the prefix “social” to “cognition.” Thus, the information processing psychology of “things” hardly facilitates basic requirements of social cognition—“would stoop to any way to learn more about a person,” the phenomena of the person, the experience of the person, the knowledge of the person. The PANT Thesis inherently posits that there are categorical distinctions between a “person” and a “thing” as perceptual objects, although both belong to the general category of (perceptual) objects. Thus, this thesis mainly contains two parts of theoretical components in defining objects: defining general objects and the person-thing object distinction (the latter in the contemporary context also involves the animate-inanimate distinction). This paper reviews and refines this thesis in two sections. Section 4 arranges a system of perceptual object theory based on the person-thing distinction resorting to insights from Heider's text. Next, section 5 further confirms the independence and fundamentality of person perception as different from thing perception drawing upon contemporary new experimental evidence and new neural pathway hypotheses. In the end, while both the abstraction principle of cognition as favored by information processing psychology and the PANT Thesis of early social cognition uphold the objectives of autonomy in social cognition, they take contrasting approaches. The abstraction principle of cognition engenders an epistemological reduction, which results in person perception being diminished to thing perception. The PANT Thesis, proficiently addresses this theoretical challenge, thereby reinforcing theoretical autonomy and unity within social cognition. References | Related Articles | Metrics