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25 June 2024, Volume 56 Issue 6 Previous Issue   
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Reports of Empirical Studies


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The mechanism of visual processing for nonsalient stimuli in perceptual learning ZHANG Qi, WANG Zile, WU Meijun 2024, 56 (6):  689-700.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00689 Abstract ( 452 )   PDF (659KB) ( 907 )   Peer Review Comments Previous studies have found that perceptual learning can improve the performance on visual search tasks. However, many cognitive processes are involved in visual search, and it is unclear at which visual processing stage perceptual learning facilitates search performance. The current study explored the mechanism of perceptual learning by dividing the eye movement metrics into three visual processing stages: search initiation time (the early visual processing stage), which represents the cognitive process of the time of processing the current location and selecting the next search location; scanning time (the middle visual processing stage), which includes the number and processing time of fixation positions; verification time (the late visual processing stage), which represents determining whether the current stimulus is the target and making a verification. A 2 (target type: trained vs. untrained triangle) × 2 (test stage: pretest vs. posttest) within-subjects design was used to address the above issue. 24 healthy young adults (5 males; mean age: 21.23 ± 2.02 years) participated as paid volunteers in this study. We randomly selected one of the four orientations of the triangle (Up, Down, Left, or Right) as the trained triangle, which would receive three days of training. Moreover, to ensure that the visual search training was specific to the trained triangle, the trained and untrained triangles were tested by recording the behavior results and eye movement before and after training (untrained triangle was randomly selected from the distractors). Each trial started with a fixation cross (When eye movement was recorded, the search display would not appear until the participants fixated on the center cross for more than 500 ms; when eye movement was not recorded, the central fixation cross was presented for 500 ms and then the search screen was presented). Then a search display was presented until the key response or the elapse reached 2000 ms since its onset. The response was recorded only before the fixation cross disappeared. The task of participants was to determine whether or not the target was presented as quickly as possible. Participants pressed the left arrow key to report the presence of a target or the right arrow key to report its absence. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted with the factors of target type (trained vs. untrained triangle) and test stage (pretest vs. posttest). The behavior results found the reduced response time and increased accuracy when searching for trained stimuli after training. However, there was no significant difference in response time or accuracy between pretest and posttest for untrained stimuli. The results of eye movement tracking are as follows: (1) in the early visual processing stage, the search initiation time of the trained stimuli increased significantly after training, and there was no significant difference in the search initiation time between pretest and posttest for untrained stimuli. (2) In the middle visual processing stage, the number of fixations and the average fixation time of trained stimuli were significantly reduced after training, and there was no significant difference for untrained stimuli before and after training. (3) In the late visual processing stage, there was no significant difference in verification time between the pretest and posttest for both trained and untrained stimuli. In conclusion, the accuracy and search initiation time of searching for trained stimuli was increased, while the number of fixations and the fixation time decreased. Moreover, the changes in behavior and eye movement indexes did not transfer to untrained stimuli. It is suggested that perceptual learning can affect the early and middle visual processing stages, and search performance may be improved by increasing the search latency, reducing the number of saccades, and reducing the fixation time. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of spontaneity and presentation mode on the ingroup advantage in recognizing angry and disgusted facial expressions FANG Xia, GE Youxun 2024, 56 (6):  701-713.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00701 Abstract ( 337 )   PDF (710KB) ( 529 )   Peer Review Comments With the acceleration of globalization, effective cross-cultural communication has become increasingly important in modern society. One significant aspect of this communication involves accurately interpreting facial expressions of emotion. Previous research has found that nonverbal emotional communication is compromised when communication occurs between individuals from different cultural backgrounds compared to within cultural groups. Specifically, individuals are more accurate at recognizing facial expressions of individuals from their own cultural background than those from a different cultural background, a phenomenon known as ingroup advantage effect. However, most previous studies examining the ingroup advantage in facial expression recognition have focused primarily on posed and static facial expressions, paying less attention to spontaneous and dynamic facial expressions. Given that facial expressions in real-life interactions are often spontaneous and dynamic, it is imperative to investigate whether the ingroup advantage is influenced by the spontaneity (posed and spontaneous) and presentation mode (static and dynamic) of facial expressions. To address these research objectives, we conducted two experiments involving participants from China, Canada, and the Netherlands. In Experiment 1, Chinese and Canadian participants were asked to recognize posed and spontaneous facial expressions of anger and disgust displayed by Chinese and Dutch models. In Experiment 2, Chinese and Dutch participants were recruited to recognize static and dynamic facial expressions of anger and disgust displayed by Chinese and Dutch models. Specifically, Experiment 1 included 126 Chinese participants and 126 Canadian participants, while Experiment 2 involved 82 Chinese participants and 75 Dutch participants. In both experiments, participants were asked to rate the intensity of facial expressions on scales of anger, disgust, fear, sadness, and joy ranging from 0 (not at all) to 100 (extremely). The results indicated that the ingroup advantage was influenced by the spontaneity of the facial expressions. In three out of four cases (Eastern perceivers recognizing facial expressions of anger and disgust, and Western perceivers recognizing facial expressions of disgust), posed expressions exhibited a stronger ingroup advantage compared to spontaneous expressions. The exception was Western perceivers demonstrating a greater ingroup advantage when recognizing spontaneous facial expressions of anger. Furthermore, the findings revealed that the ingroup advantage was not influenced by the presentation mode of the facial expressions. In three out of four cases (Eastern perceivers recognizing facial expressions of anger and disgust, and Western perceivers recognizing facial expressions of disgust), there was no significant difference in the ingroup advantage between static and dynamic expressions. The only exception was Western perceivers' recognition of static expressions of anger, where the ingroup advantage was greater than that for dynamic expressions of anger. In conclusion, the present research demonstrated that the ingroup advantage was more pronounced in posed expression recognition compared to spontaneous expression recognition, while the presentation mode of the expressions did not influence the ingroup advantage. These findings contribute to the existing knowledge in the field of cross-cultural emotion recognition by revealing differences in the ingroup advantage between posed and spontaneous expressions. Consequently, these results provide new empirical contributions that enhance our understanding of how individuals recognize expressions displayed by individuals from different cultural backgrounds. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The development of symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects: The roles of phonological abilities, visuospatial abilities and working memory JIANG Jiali, QI Yue, LEI Xiuya, LU Lifei, YU Xiao 2024, 56 (6):  714-730.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00714 Abstract ( 246 )   PDF (824KB) ( 369 )   Peer Review Comments The spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect is a phenomenon in which the leftward response is faster than the rightward response for smaller numbers, whereas for larger numbers, the rightward response is faster than the leftward response. Although the existence of the SNARC effect has been examined in many studies, most of these studies focused on the symbolic SNARC effect and neglected to explore the non-symbolic SNARC effect. Little is known about how symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects develop and whether there are differences in the cognitive mechanisms involved in these two effects. The present study aimed to simultaneously investigate the developmental characteristics and cognitive mechanisms of symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects to contribute to the understanding of number processing. In Experiment 1, a large-sample cross-sectional method was used with four age groups to explore the developmental characteristics of symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects. Thirty-six 6- to 7-year-old children, 59 7- to 8-year-old children, 69 8- to 9-year-old children and 31 adults performed the symbolic and non-symbolic parity judgement task. Experiment 2 was based on dual coding theory and the findings from Experiment 1. In this experiment, 137 children aged 8 to 9 years, the key age at which symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects are observed, were selected as participants and followed longitudinally for six months to explore whether the two SNARC effects had similar cognitive mechanisms. Phonological ability, visuospatial ability, visual working memory and phonological working memory were measured at T1. At T2 (after 6 months), the participants' symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects were measured. The symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects at T1 were controlled. The findings of this study were as follows. (1) The non-symbolic SNARC effect emerged in 6- to 7-year-old children, while the symbolic SNARC effect emerged in 8- to 9-year-old children. Thus, the non-symbolic SNARC effect emerged earlier than the symbolic SNARC effect. (2) There were no significant age differences in the symbolic or non-symbolic SNARC effects. (3) For 8- to 9-year-old children and adults with both symbolic SNARC effects and non-symbolic SNARC effects, these two effects were not significantly correlated. (4) Phonological ability and phonological working memory at T1 significantly predicted the development of the symbolic SNARC effect at T2 but not the development of the non-symbolic SNARC effect at T2. Visuospatial ability and visual working memory at T1 significantly predicted the development of the non-symbolic SNARC effect at T2 but not the development of the symbolic SNARC effect. In conclusion, 8 to 9 years is the critical age at which symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects emerge simultaneously, and there is no significant difference in the size of the SNARC effects according to age. Furthermore, phonological ability and phonological working memory contribute to the symbolic SNARC effect, whereas visuospatial ability and visual working memory contribute to the non-symbolic SNARC effect. These findings suggest a difference in the cognitive mechanisms of these two SNARC effects. These findings support the hypothesis of the separation of symbolic and non-symbolic SNARC effects and extend dual coding theory. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of instrumental feeding on picky eating behavior in children aged 9 to 12: Evidence from resting-state fMRI CUI Yicen, ZHANG Yixiao, CHEN Ximei, XIAO Mingyue, LIU Yong, SONG Shiqing, GAO Xiao, GUO Cheng, CHEN Hong 2024, 56 (6):  731-744.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00731 Abstract ( 271 )   PDF (910KB) ( 459 )   Peer Review Comments Picky eating is a common dietary issue among children characterized by lack of variety of foods consumed due to rejection of familiar (or unfamiliar) foods. The influencing factor model of picky eating behavior in children indicates that environmental and cognitive factors are key elements influencing this. Studies have found that instrumental feeding exacerbates picky eating behavior in children. However, due to the relatively young age of children in previous studies, research on the relationship between instrumental feeding and picky eating behaviors in school-aged children is insufficient. Furthermore, the brain plays a central role in guiding eating behavior; however, to date, limited neuroscientific research on the neural basis of picky eating behaviors in school-aged children exists. This study aimed to utilize resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data combined with a machine learning method to explore the neural basis of picky eating behaviors in children. Additionally, it attempted to show the neural mechanisms through which instrumental feeding influences picky eating behavior. A total of 139 children were recruited for this study. Instrumental feeding and picky eating behaviors were assessed through parent-reported measurements and rs-fMRI was conducted. A total of 87 children were included in the formal analyses as those who did not participate in the two behavioral measurements and with unqualified rs-fMRI scans were excluded. This study utilized regional homogeneity and functional connectivity to evaluate the resting-state neural substrates of picky eating behaviors. Subsequently, a machine learning method is employed to validate the stability of our results. Additionally, a mediation model was constructed to investigate the mediating role of resting-state neural substrates in the relationship between instrumental feeding and picky eating behavior. Results showed that picky eating behavior was positively correlated with regional homogeneity in the right caudate. Functional connectivity results showed that picky eating behavior was positively correlated with functional connectivity between the right caudate and left putamen. A prediction analysis based on a cross-validation machine learning method indicated a significant correlation between picky eating behavior scores predicted by the aforementioned neural substrates (i.e., regional homogeneity in the right caudate and functional connectivity between the right caudate and left putamen) and the actual observed picky eating behavior scores. The mediation model further suggested that functional connectivity between the right caudate and left putamen could mediate the relationship between instrumental feeding and picky eating behavior. Specifically, instrumental feeding might negatively influence the functional connectivity between the right caudate and left putamen, and further reduce picky eating behavior. By combining resting-state regional homogeneity and functional connectivity analyses, this study detected altered functional brain activity related to picky eating behaviors in children aged 9 to 12. Specifically, hyperactive neural interactions within the brain areas involved in sensory sensitivity and reward processing may explain the manifestation of picky eating behavior in children. Additionally, instrumental feeding negatively influences picky eating behavior through brain activity in regions involved in sensory sensitivity and reward processing. This study provides new insights into the resting-state neural substrates of children's picky eating behavior, extends the influencing factor model of children's picky eating behavior, and provides theoretical support for interventions to improve poor picky eating behavior in children through parental feeding practices. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Relationship between adolescents’ smartphone stress and mental health: Based on the multiverse-style analysis and intensive longitudinal method HUANG Shunsen, LAI Xiaoxiong, ZHANG Cai, ZHAO Xinmei, DAI Xinran, QI Mengdi, WANG Huanlei, WANG Wenrong, WANG Yun 2024, 56 (6):  745-758.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00745 Abstract ( 1013 )   PDF (1112KB) ( 1954 )   Peer Review Comments Adolescents frequently encounter elevated levels of digital stress by exposure to digital media (e.g., smartphone stress). Their ongoing brain development increases adolescents’ susceptibility to digital stress, making them more vulnerable to its adverse effects. Among digital devices, smartphones are the most widely used ones by adolescents and a primary source of digital stress. The current study aims to investigate the robust association between digital stress, specifically smartphone stress, and adolescent mental health. The study also aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms of this association. In Study 1, a multiverse-style analysis was employed to investigate the robust relationship between smartphone stress and mental health (depression and well-being) in a large sample of adolescents (N = 74, 182, male = 39, 192). This method was chosen for its robustness of various data manipulations to test the effect of interest, and median β and NSRPD (number of significant results in predominant direction) were used as statistical inference indicators of the effect. In Study 2, we conducted an intensive longitudinal design to examine the mechanism of how smartphone stress affects mental health among adolescents (N = 477, female = 214, Mage = 12.67 ± 0.31). Before intensive longitudinal design, we assessed smartphone stress, well-being, and depression (T1). Subsequently, daily rumination (consecutive 17 days, T2) and daily negative mood (consecutive 18 days, T3) were assessed over a 35-day period. Upon intensive longitudinal design, we once again measured well-being and depression (T4). We found that rumination, negative emotion (NE), and rumination-NE (serial mediation) mediate the link between smartphone stress and mental health (smartphone stress-depression model, smartphone stress-well-being model). Study 1 indicated that over half of adolescents (52.6% of grade 4 students and 78.2% of grade 8 students) experienced smartphone stress. Furthermore, smartphone stress strongly and robustly predicted depression (Median β = 0.37, p < 0.001, NSRPD = 160/160, p < 0.001, partial r2 = 0.172) and well-being (Median β = -0.14, p < 0.001, NSRPD = 160/160, p < 0.001, partial r2 = 0.011). Effect sizes from both outcomes (partial r2 > 0.010) are capable to inform policy and the public sphere. Study 2 revealed that rumination intensity, negative emotion intensity, and rumination-negative emotion intensity mediate the relationship between smartphone stress and depression. However, no mediation was found for rumination or negative emotion fluctuation. In smartphone stress-well-being model, negative emotion intensity and rumination-negative emotion intensity, but not rumination intensity, mediated the association between smartphone stress and well-being. Moreover, negative emotion and rumination-negative emotion fluctuation, but not rumination fluctuation, mediated the association between smartphone stress and well-being. Therefore, the intensity and fluctuation of rumination and negative emotion are common mediators in the relationship between smartphone stress and depression/well-being, while the effects of mechanisms are outcome-dependent. The findings pinpoint the significant and robust effect of smartphone stress on depression and well-being among adolescents. The mediation of rumination and negative emotion in the relationship between smartphone stress and mental health probes into the mechanism of this relationship. These results support classic theories (e.g., the Emotional Cascade Model) and confirm and enrich the recent Media use-Digital stress-Mental health model. These findings could also inform future interventions for mental health problems related to smartphone stress. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Underestimating others’ fertility attitudes and behaviors hinders the fertility intentions of childless individuals in Gen Z CHEN Sijing, SHEN Jiahui, JIANG Qiaojie, YANG Shasha 2024, 56 (6):  759-776.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00759 Abstract ( 1222 )   PDF (547KB) ( 1571 )   Peer Review Comments The existing literature on fertility has predominantly focused on analyzing objective factors at macro and micro levels, such as gender, age, income, family relationships, economic situation, and social structure, that impact an individual’s fertility intentions. However, an often overlooked yet equally significant factor lies in an individual’s perception of the social climate surrounding fertility. This factor encompasses attitudes and behaviors related to fertility displayed by similar others. This article presents five studies from a social cognitive perspective aimed at addressing the following questions: (1) How do individuals perceive the fertility attitudes and behaviors of others? (2) To what extent and in what manner does this perception influence an individual’s own fertility intentions? (3) How can we explain this relationship? This paper presents a comprehensive investigation comprising five studies that focus on individuals born between 1995 and 2005. In Studies 2a, 2b, and 3, we specifically targeted childless individuals. The key variables under examination included perceptions of fertility attitudes, operationalized as individuals’ judgments of the desired family size; perceptions of fertility behaviors, proxied by individuals’ judgments of the magnitude of change in China’s total fertility rate from 2021 to 2022; and fertility intentions, measured using a scale developed by the researchers. Study 1 involved a cross-sectional survey with 904 participants, of which 735 had never given birth. The primary aim of Study 1 was to gain initial insights into how individuals perceive the attitudes/behaviors of others and how these perceptions relate to their own fertility intentions. Studies 2a and 2b utilized experimental designs to establish a causal relationship between the perception of others’ fertility attitudes/behaviors and one’s own fertility intentions. In contrast, Study 3, a three-round longitudinal survey, sought to investigate whether fertility efficacy and perceived responsibility could explain the observed relationships. Lastly, Study 4 represents a single-paper meta-analysis that focuses on effect sizes for the key findings derived from the studies in this paper. The main results can be summarized as follows: (1) Childless participants consistently displayed a tendency to underestimate others’ fertility attitudes/behaviors, whereas participants who had given birth in Study 1 exhibited an overly optimistic view of others’ fertility attitudes/behaviors. (2) The underestimation of others’ fertility attitudes/behaviors had a consistent suppressive effect on participants’ own fertility intentions. (3) Overly pessimistic views of others’ fertility attitudes/behaviors significantly reduced participants’ fertility efficacy in successfully pursuing fertility, as well as their perception of fertility as a family and social responsibility. Both of these factors, in turn, contributed to a reduction in fertility intentions, with the effect of fertility efficacy being more pronounced. (4) Notably, all key findings exhibited effect sizes ranging from small to moderate, highlighting the nuanced nature of these relationships. The above findings have significant theoretical and practical implications. Firstly, the results suggest that perceptions of the social climate regarding fertility play a crucial role in an individual’s fertility decisions. Consequently, solely focusing on objective factors may not yield a comprehensive understanding of the intricate processes influencing fertility decisions, thereby bridging a gap in the existing literature. Secondly, the findings imply that a social norms approach can effectively address biased perceptions of others’ attitudes/behaviors toward fertility. By doing so, this approach contributes to bolstering fertility intentions, presenting a valuable complement to current policies that primarily emphasize economic factors. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The “far dog, near cat” effect in stray animal charity rescue and its mechanism LIU Wumei, WANG Lu 2024, 56 (6):  777-798.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00777 Abstract ( 776 )   PDF (5217KB) ( 1348 )   Peer Review Comments While past pro-social research has focused on charitable donations to humans, we know little about charitable assistance for stray animals. However, investigating the factors that promote human’s assistance to stray animals is of great practical importance. Currently, an increasing number of organizations and platforms are involving themselves in rescuing stray animals. When these organizations and platforms present animal rescue information, the information ad contains both animal type and spatial distance. Therefore, to address this research gap, this paper aims to study how animal type and spatial distance jointly influence consumers’ willingness to rescue stray animals, as well as the mechanisms and boundary conditions. We propose a novel “far dog, near cat” effect. Specifically, we predict that under the near spatial distance, rescuing cat (versus rescuing dog) increases consumers’ rescuing willingness, whereas under the far spatial distance, rescuing dog (versus rescuing cat) increases consumers’ rescuing willingness. To test this effect, we conducted a total of nine experiments (N = 2848), including one implicit association test, one field experiment, one laboratory experiment, and six online experiments in different scenarios. We determined sample size of each experiment using G*power calculator. Overall, this study found that cats were more compatible with proximal spatial distance, while dogs were more compatible with distal spatial distance (Experiment 1a、1b). Therefore, presenting a stray cat (vs. a stray dog) in the proximal spatial-distance ad triggered consumers’ higher willingness to rescue the animal, while presenting a stray dog (vs. a stray cat) in the distal spatial-distance ad triggered consumers’ higher willingness to rescue the animal (Experiments 2-5). We further found that processing fluency mediated the “far dog, near cat” effect (Experiments 4-5). In addition, we found that the “far dog, near cat” effect was moderated by consumers’ thinking styles such that the "far dog, near cat" effect was evident when consumers adopted affective thinking style and disappeared when consumers adopted cognitive thinking style (Experiment 6). This paper has significant theoretical contributions and practical implications. Theoretically, this study focuses on stray animals as a novel object of charitable donations and builds the implicit linkage between animal type and spatial distance. Also, this study identifies the “far dog, near cat” effect in stray animal rescue, adding to past pro-social literature in general and donation literature in particular. Practically, the “far dog, near cat” effect we identified in this paper can guide charitable organizations how to present animal-rescue information appropriately. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Differences in information processing between experienced investors and novices, and intervention in fund investment decision-making XIN Ziqiang, WANG Luxiao, LI Yue 2024, 56 (6):  799-813.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00799 Abstract ( 221 )   PDF (1069KB) ( 395 )   Peer Review Comments Many individuals now participate in online fund investment, but novice investors often struggle with the complex information they encounter due to the lack of professional guidance in traditional offline financing. Previous research on decision-making has primarily focused on outcomes and utilized statistical methods to construct decision models, which fail to provide direct evidence of information processing. To assist novices in developing the necessary skills for making investment decisions, this study employs process tracking technology in the field of fund investment for the first time. The aim is to explore the differences in information processing between experienced investors and novices, thereby identifying the advantages experienced investors possess in information processing. Additionally, this research investigates the relationship between the decision-making process and outcomes, proposing interventions based on information processing to aid novices in making accurate investment decisions. To achieve the research objectives, two studies were conducted. Study 1 involved a comprehensive exploration that traced the fund investment decision-making process using Mouselab. It compared various information processing indicators between experienced investors and novices, including decision-making time, depth of search, variability of search, compensatory index, and SM (strategy measure) value of the search pattern. The study also examined the impact of the search pattern on decision quality for experienced investors and novices through grouping logistic regression. Study 2 involved an intervention experiment utilizing a single- factor (structured intervention group vs. control group) between-subject design. Participants in the structured intervention group were provided a piece of form paper to guide them to structure information of funds, while participants in the control group were provided blank paper. Then all participants completed a simulated fund investment task and their decision quality was recorded. Study 1 revealed that: (1) Experienced investors, compared to novices, preferred to utilize attribute-based search pattern during fund investment decision-making, and displayed a more non-compensatory approach to information processing. (2) Only the decision quality of novices in fund investment was affected by the information search pattern, indicating that their decision quality improved when they searched for information based on attributes. In contrast, the decision quality of experienced investors was unaffected by the information search pattern but positively influenced by working memory. Study 2 demonstrated that participants who used form paper for intervention had higher decision-making quality than those who used blank paper, indicating the effectiveness of the structured intervention. This study makes theoretical and practical contributions to the literature. First, it explores the characteristics of the information processing process during fund investment decision-making and its relationship with decision outcomes, filling the research gap regarding the “process” of information processing and deepening the understanding of the essence of decision-making ability in fund investment. Second, it extends the “expert-novice” paradigm to the field of fund investment, summarizing the differences in the search pattern and compensatory behavior between experts and novices, further supporting the heuristic decision model. Third, it proposes effective interventions to assist novice investors in improving their online fund investment and inspires the interface design of fund applications. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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An exploration of the antecedents and consequences of judges’ time poverty at work: A qualitative study ZHANG Nan, CAO Peiling, LI Ning, SUN Xiaomin, QIAO Zhihong, ZHAO Jingwu 2024, 56 (6):  814-830.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00814 Abstract ( 254 )   PDF (1126KB) ( 579 )   Peer Review Comments In an era of “litigation explosion”, Chinese judges are faced with the challenge of effectively handling the overwhelming and increasing volume of court cases. To address the dilemma of “too many cases but too few judges”, previous research on judicial practice has mainly focused on improving the efficiency of litigation procedure. However, one critical aspect that has been largely neglected is the underlying psychological response of judges to this challenge, which may play a pivotal role in the effectiveness and quality of judicial decision making. To address this gap, the current research adopted a person-centered perspective, aiming to uncover the role played by the prevalent feeling of time poverty, the feeling of not having enough time to accomplish all work-related tasks, among judges. We delved into the antecedents that triggered judges’ perception of time poverty, explored the consequences it had on judicial work, and unraveled the mechanisms through which time poverty influences the quality and efficiency of judicial decisions. Based on the grounded theory method, we conducted in-depth interviews with judges recruited through a purposeful sampling method. Specifically, participants consisted of judges (N = 51) who came from various regions across North China, Central China, and Southeast China, and who worked for local People's Courts at various levels (i.e., the primary, intermediate, and high People's Court) with tenures ranging from one to thirty-six years, ensuring a diverse representation of perspectives and experiences. The current study constructed an integrated model that elucidated the antecedents and consequences of the perception of time poverty within the realm of the judiciary. Findings revealed that (1) a mismatch between job demands, which were increased due to the numerous and detailed workloads and the burden of assessment requirements, and resources, which were decreased due to insufficient staffing, contributed to judges’ time poverty at work, and (2) time poverty urged the judges to speed up judicial decisions as well as to prolong their working hours, which in turn damaged the quality and effectiveness of judicial decisions. By examining judges’ feelings of time poverty at work, the current study employed a person-centered perspective that complements the normative approach of extant legal science research and elucidated the mechanism that underlies the formation of judges’ time poverty and its judicial consequences. Findings of the current study provide theoretical insight into the challenge of case overload in China through a psychological perspective and offer practical implications for policymakers to overcome the challenge by prioritizing the feelings and needs of judges. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Automated scoring of open-ended situational judgment tests XU Jing, LUO Fang, MA Yanzhen, HU Luming, TIAN Xuetao 2024, 56 (6):  831-844.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2024.00831 Abstract ( 228 )   PDF (3038KB) ( 345 )   Peer Review Comments Situational Judgment Tests (SJTs) have gained popularity for their unique testing content and high face validity. However, traditional SJT formats, particularly those employing multiple-choice (MC) options, have encountered scrutiny due to their susceptibility to test-taking strategies. In contrast, open-ended and constructed response (CR) formats present a propitious means to address this issue. Nevertheless, their extensive adoption encounters hurdles primarily stemming from the financial implications associated with manual scoring. In response to this challenge, we propose an open-ended SJT employing a written-constructed response format for the assessment of teacher competency. This study established a scoring framework leveraging natural language processing (NLP) technology to automate the assessment of response texts, subsequently subjecting the system's validity to rigorous evaluation. The study constructed a comprehensive teacher competency model encompassing four distinct dimensions: student-oriented, problem-solving, emotional intelligence, and achievement motivation. Additionally, an open-ended situational judgment test was developed to gauge teachers' aptitude in addressing typical teaching dilemmas. A dataset comprising responses from 627 primary and secondary school teachers was collected, with manual scoring based on predefined criteria applied to 6, 000 response texts from 300 participants. To expedite the scoring process, supervised learning strategies were employed, facilitating the categorization of responses at both the document and sentence levels. Various deep learning models, including the convolutional neural network (CNN), recurrent neural network (RNN), long short-term memory (LSTM), C-LSTM, RNN+attention, and LSTM+attention, were implemented and subsequently compared, thereby assessing the concordance between human and machine scoring. The validity of automatic scoring was also verified. This study reveals that the open-ended situational judgment test exhibited an impressive Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.91 and demonstrated a good fit in the validation factor analysis through the use of Mplus. Criterion-related validity was assessed, revealing significant correlations between test results and various educational facets, including instructional design, classroom evaluation, homework design, job satisfaction, and teaching philosophy. Among the diverse machine scoring models evaluated, CNNs have emerged as the top-performing model, boasting a scoring accuracy ranging from 70% to 88%, coupled with a remarkable degree of consistency with expert scores (r = 0.95, QWK = 0.82). The correlation coefficients between human and computer ratings for the four dimensions—student-oriented, problem-solving, emotional intelligence, and achievement motivation—approximated 0.9. Furthermore, the model showcased an elevated level of predictive accuracy when applied to new text datasets, serving as compelling evidence of its robust generalization capabilities. This study ventured into the realm of automated scoring for open-ended situational judgment tests, employing rigorous psychometric methodologies. To affirm its validity, the study concentrated on a specific facet: the evaluation of teacher competency traits. Fine-grained scoring guidelines were formulated, and state-of-the-art NLP techniques were used for text feature recognition and classification. The primary findings of this investigation can be summarized as follows: (1) Open-ended SJTs can establish precise scoring criteria grounded in crucial behavioral response elements; (2) Sentence-level text classification outperforms document- level classification, with CNNs exhibiting remarkable accuracy in response categorization; and (3) The scoring model consistently delivers robust performance and demonstrates a remarkable degree of alignment with human scoring, thereby hinting at its potential to partially supplant manual scoring procedures. References | Related Articles | Metrics