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Reports of Empirical Studies
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Reports of Empirical Studies

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Automatic processing of facial width-to-height ratio WANG Hailing, CHEN Enguang, LIAN Yujing, LI Jingjing, WANG Liwei 2023, 55 (11):  1745-1761.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01745 Abstract ( 3413 )   HTML ( 418 )   PDF (7438KB) ( 4651 )   Peer Review Comments The facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) is a stable perceptual structure of all faces. It is calculated by dividing the face width (the distance between the left and right zygion) by the face height (the distance between the eyebrow and the upper lip). Previous studies have demonstrated that men's facial width-to-height ratio is a reliable clue to noticing aggressive tendencies and behavior. Individuals with higher fWHR were considered by observers as more aggressive than those with lower fWHR. The researchers proposed that this may be related to facial expression. Observers more readily saw anger in faces with a relatively high fWHR and more readily saw fear in faces with a relatively low fWHR. However, it is unclear what the neural mechanism of fWHR is, particularly in the absence of attention. The present study investigated this issue by recording visual mismatch negativity (vMMN), which indicates automatic processing of visual information under unattended conditions. Participants performed a size-change-detection task on a central cross, while random sequences of faces were presented in the background using a deviant-standard-reverse oddball paradigm. High fWHR faces (deviant stimuli) were presented less frequently among low fWHR faces (standard stimuli), or vice versa. Forty-one and twenty-five Chinese participated in Experiment 1 and 2, respectively. We hypothesized that faces with high fWHR would elicit a larger vMMN compared to faces with low fWHR. If the above result is related to the fact that high fWHR faces appear angrier and low fWHR faces appear more fearful, then high fWHR faces displaying an angry expression would evoke vMMN and low fWHR faces displaying a fearful expression would evoke vMMN. In Experiment 1, faces with neutral expressions were used. The occipital-temporal vMMN emerged in the latency range of 200~500 ms for faces with high fWHR and in the latency range of 200~250 ms and 300~350 ms for faces with low fWHR. More importantly, faces with high fWHR elicited a higher vMMN than those with low fWHR faces in the 300~350 ms latency range. In Experiment 2, faces with expressions of fear and anger were used. Results showed that high-fWHR faces displaying an angry expression elicited a vMMN in the 200~250 ms and 300~400 ms latency ranges, while low-fWHR faces displaying a fearful expression elicited a vMMN in the 250~400 ms latency range, especially in the left hemisphere. Comparing Experiment 1 and 2, we found that faces with high fWHR displaying an angry expression elicited smaller vMMN than those displaying a neutral expression. In conclusion, the present findings suggest that the facial width-to-height ratio is associated with automatic processing and provide new electrophysiological evidence for the different mechanisms underlying high and low fWHR faces under unattended conditions. The results might be related to facial expressions. Consistent with previous studies, the current finding demonstrates that automatic processing of high and low fWHR is promoted by expressions of anger and fear, respectively. At the same time, due to the automatic processing of facial expressions, the automatic processing of faces with high fWHR was weakened by angry faces relative to neutral faces. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of bronze drum training on rhythm perception and executive function of Zhuang drummers ZHANG Hang, WANG Ting, FENG Xiaohui, WEI Yiping, ZHANG Jijia 2023, 55 (11):  1762-1779.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01762 Abstract ( 2007 )   HTML ( 260 )   PDF (4704KB) ( 2245 )   Peer Review Comments Rhythm, as the temporal variation in a sequence of sounds, plays a crucial role in understanding musical melodies and speech patterns. Previous research has shown that musicians exhibit superior abilities in processing music-related and unrelated information and show advantages in executive function. However, the specific component of musical training (pitch or rhythm) that yields these benefits remains unclear, largely due to the intertwined nature of pitch and rhythm training. This study seeks to understand the impact of exclusive rhythmic training on cognitive abilities, leveraging the unique opportunity provided by Zhuang drummers who have undergone bronze drum training without any formal melodic training. The bronze drum is the artistic treasure of Zhuang nation.As a unique form of local instrumental music performance, Donglan bronze drum music pursues the asynchronicity and variability of rhythm, and has more characteristics than the music art synchronized with the collective, which requires a higher level of rhythm perception. The most distinctive feature of Donglan bronze drum music is the rich rhythm changes, which fully reflects the superb skill level of the players. Therefore, long-term bronze drum training may promote the drummer's music perception and higher cognitive function development. We conducted six experiments involving 52 participants from Lan Yang, a small town in Guangxi Donglan County. Among them, 26 individuals [Mean age = 49.88 ± 15.98 years] had long-term bronze drum training but no other musical training, while the other 26 [Mean age = 47.77 ± 12.62 years] had no music training at all. Participants underwent tasks in rhythmic and pitch change detection, combined rhythmic-pitch change detection, pitch-based auditory Stroop, auditory n-back tasks, and a cued alternating runs switching task. The results indicated that the Zhuang bronze drummers exhibited superior rhythm perception compared to the control group, with no discernable difference in pitch perception, suggesting the bronze drum training may enhance auditory temporal fine-tuning. Regarding executive functions, the drummers outperformed the control group in inhibitory control and working memory updating. However, rhythm perception was unrelated to switching performance, aligning with the “Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions” hypothesis that expertise in rhythm perception doesn't uniformly improve all cognitive abilities. This study demonstrates that the rhythmic perception ability of Zhuang bronze drummers is an interplay of cognitive factors and Zhuang musical culture exposure. The long-term bronze drum training significantly enhances rhythm perception and certain executive functions, revealing the non-aesthetic value of bronze drum performance. The unique “variation rhythm” style may have originated from the imitation of “frogs clamour”, a feature of the local bronze drum music culture. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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How collaboration reduces memory errors: A meta-analysis review SUN Yaru, LIU Zejun, DUAN Yajie, CHEN Ning, LIU Wei 2023, 55 (11):  1780-1792.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01780 Abstract ( 2242 )   HTML ( 208 )   PDF (435KB) ( 2987 )   Peer Review Comments In collaborative memory, the memory performances of collaborative and equal-sized nominal groups were measured by the number of correctly recalled items. By comparing the correct recall results between the two groups, collaboration during the retrieval phase is seen to possibly result in collaborative inhibition and collaborative facilitation. However, recall error items were also essential indicators of collaboration. Several studies have considered error recall items as indicators to show that collaboration is beneficial in reducing errors. The phenomenon of collaborative groups recording significantly fewer recall errors than nominal groups is referred to as the “error pruning effect.” The mechanisms and moderators of the collaborative inhibition effect have been explored in several previous studies, but evidence on the mechanism of the “error pruning effect” is scarce. This meta-analysis aimed to investigate the robustness of error pruning in collaborative memory and to examine the potential mechanisms and moderators. Studies were identified with several keywords, including “collaborative memory”, “collaborative recall”, “collaborative inhibition”, and “collaborative facilitation”. English language databases, including Web of Science, Science Direct, EBSCO, and ProQuest, as well as the Chinese language database CNKI, were searched. From 38 empirical studies (from a total sample N = 6225), 64 independent samples were included. We chose the random-effect model to conduct the meta-analysis using CMA 3.3. The 64 independent samples showed considerable heterogeneity. Moreover, no substantial publication bias was found in the studies, which was confirmed by the funnel plot, fail-safe number, and trim and fill methods. Standardized mean differences measured by Hedges’ g were used as the effect size index in the meta-analysis. The main effect showed a large and robust error pruning effect and collaborative inhibition effect in the results. Moreover, the results indicated that the collaborative inhibition effect commonly accompanies the error pruning effect. Further analysis revealed that collaborative approaches and interpersonal relationships moderate the error pruning effect. In particular, collaboration of free-flowing and consensus building enhanced the error pruning effect, while collaboration had no significant effect on the inhibition effect. The type of material had no significant effect on error pruning, while story material increased collaborative inhibition. Familiar relationships increased the error pruning effect, but they weakened collaborative inhibition. Overall, the study results demonstrated the effect of collaborative recall on inhibiting error and improving accuracy. Collaboration and interpersonal relationships may act as important moderating variables in the process. Although error pruning resulted from a feeling of knowing through recall from collaborative partners, it required a relatively low level of processing. Lastly, efficient error correction could be easily achieved through sufficient communication. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Strategy switching in a sequence of decisions: Evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task HU Xinyun, SHEN Yue, DAI Junyi 2023, 55 (11):  1793-1805.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01793 Abstract ( 1861 )   HTML ( 194 )   PDF (1017KB) ( 2044 )   Peer Review Comments Much research has been devoted to studying decision strategies in various tasks. Such research usually involved a sequence of decision trials under the same task structure to provide sufficient information for inferring the underlying decision strategies. By assuming each individual adopted a single decision strategy across all decision trials and comparing corresponding computational cognitive models in terms of their performances in fitting empirical data, such studies have revealed multiple possible decision strategies for many major decision tasks. One common drawback of such research, however, was overlooking the possibility that individuals switched their strategies along the sequence of decisions. This might lead to inappropriate conclusions regarding the decision strategies underlying specific decision tasks or misleading inferences of potential cognitive and affective differences between normal and different clinical populations based on parameter estimates from models assuming single strategies. To address this critical issue, two studies were conducted to examine the possibility of strategy switching in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), an experience-based decision task with a sequence of trials aimed at mimicking real-world decisions under uncertainty. By developing a computational cognitive model that allowed for switches between reinforcement learning strategies and heuristic strategies and comparing its performance with those of single-strategy models, Study 1 showed that data from about half of the 617 healthy participants in 10 previous studies were better fitted by the strategy-switching model than three single-strategy models that performed well in previous research, that is, the WSLS, PVL2, and VPP models as exemplar models assuming heuristic, reinforcement learning, and mixed strategies, respectively. This result provided clear support for the possibility of strategy switching in the IGT. Since strategy switching might occur with accumulating experience or fatigue and an increasing number of trials is likely to facilitate such changes, 321 participants were recruited in Study 2 to further examine whether a larger number of trials would contribute to more strategy switching in the IGT. Specifically, 160 participants performed a 100-trial IGT, whereas the other 161 participants performed a 200-trial IGT under otherwise the same task structure. It was found that data from a larger proportion of individual participants were best fitted by the strategy-switching model when the IGT involved 200 trials rather than standard 100 trials. This result provided further evidence for strategy switching in the task. Overall, the current results suggest that strategy switching is likely to occur in a sequence of decisions under the same task structure. Consequently, in order to obtain proper understanding of the decision strategies for various decision tasks, it is necessary to consider seriously the possibility of strategy switching, especially for a long sequence of decisions. For a more refined understanding of psychological mechanisms underlying sequences of decisions, future research might further investigate various forms of strategy switching such as gradual instead of abrupt switches and task and individual factors that trigger such switches. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effects of emotional salience on emotion-induced blindness QIU Huiyan, LYU Yong 2023, 55 (11):  1806-1814.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01806 Abstract ( 3809 )   HTML ( 319 )   PDF (4215KB) ( 5272 )   Peer Review Comments In most visual scenes, the visual system cannot process all the information simultaneously; instead, it processes certain information first. Emotional stimuli are more likely to attract the attention of the visual system than non-emotional stimuli. However, it may be challenging to suppress the attention gained by emotional stimuli (though such a stimulus is irrelevant), and it may result in Emotion-induced Blindness (EiB), whereby the presence of an emotional stimulus fails to correlate with a task that attracts an individual’s attention. Therefore, individuals become “blinded” to a rapidly presented target stimulus. The present study investigated the effects of physical and emotional salience of emotional distractors on EiB under different background conditions using the rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm. This study used a three-factor design in which background conditions (similar vs. dissimilar), disturbance types (negative vs. neutral vs. baseline), and Lag (Lag 2 vs. Lag 8) were all within-participant variables. The dependent variable was the accuracy of the target judgment. This study consisted of three main phases. First, we applied a 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm (500 ms) black “+” fixation point with 0.39× 0.39 degrees a visual angle (DVA) that appeared in the center of the screen followed by an RSVP stimulus stream consisting of 15 images (100 ms each). Key disturbance images appeared randomly at several positions, ranging from four to six, in the stimulus stream. The baseline disturbances were selected from the same set of background images. The target stimulus appeared at either position 2 (Lag 2) or position 8 (Lag 8) following the presentation of the disturbance stimulus. At the end of each sequence, participants were instructed to answer whether the target stimulus was rotated to the left or right by pressing the “F” or “J” keys. The study utilized a repeated-measures ANOVA to analyze the impact of background conditions (similar vs. dissimilar), Lag (Lag 2 vs. Lag 8), and type of distractor (negative vs. neutral vs. baseline) on the correct rate of target identification by the study participants. Experiment 1 showed that EiB occurred under different background conditions but disappeared under similar background conditions. Experiment 2 compared the differences in EiB between the two groups under background conditions after adding a red rectangular border to the key distractor pictures. In Experiment 2, EiB occurred under dissimilar background conditions for both negative and neutral conditions, which is consistent with the findings of Experiment 1. However, the magnitude of the EiB was much greater in Experiment 2 (25%) than in Experiment 1 (17%). Additionally, under similar background conditions, the EiB produced by negative pictures was significantly larger than in Experiment 1 (10% vs. 3%). We also noted that individual notice of the emotional salience of the distractors had a significant effect on EiB, which was restored once cued to negative distractors under similar background conditions. In summary, the EiB phenomenon is driven by the physical salience of emotional distractors, rather than emotional salience. Additionally, the current findings showed that EiB was related to the attentional resources associated with distractor stimuli; in other words, the more attentional resources attracted by distractor stimuli, the more likely the occurrence of EiB. The number of attentional resources attracted by distractor stimuli was related to the difference in stimulus attributes and the number of attentional resources initially invested. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Who makes the choice? The influence of choice on preschoolers’ sharing behaviors and feelings WU Wenqing, ZHANG Qinyuan, ZHAO Xin 2023, 55 (11):  1815-1826.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01815 Abstract ( 3058 )   HTML ( 297 )   PDF (1629KB) ( 3859 )   Peer Review Comments The development of prosocial behaviors (e.g., helping, sharing) is an important part of children’s moral development. Previous research has indicated that the freedom to make choices (whether children make choices for themselves or other people make choices for them) has an important impact on children’s prosocial motivation and behaviors. However, little research has investigated the impact of the relatedness between the child and the adult who makes the choices, or the provision of reasonable explanations on children’s prosocial behaviors. Therefore, across two studies, we investigated how, one, the freedom to make choices, two, the relatedness between children and the adults who make choices for them, and/or three, the provision of reasonable explanations for those choices, may influence children’s prosocial motivation and behaviors. We conducted both studies with children aged 4~5 in China. In Study 1, children were asked to make decisions about sharing stickers with a puppet. They were randomly assigned to one of three choice conditions: self-choice, mother-choice, and experimenter-choice. In the self-choice condition, the child could decide for themselves whether to share with a puppet or not; in the mother-choice condition, the child’s mother instructed the child to share, and in the experimenter-choice condition, the experimenter instructed the child to share. After this, we measured children’s feelings during the sharing task, and their sharing behaviors towards a novel partner. Meanwhile, mothers in the self-choice and the mother-choice conditions completed a questionnaire measuring child-mother relatedness. We found that although there was no overall significant difference in children’s sharing behaviors or feelings across the three conditions, mother-child relatedness significantly moderated the effect of choice condition on children’s sharing feelings. Children who had positive relationships with their mothers demonstrated positive feelings when their mothers made the choice for them, similar to when they made the choice themselves. However, those who had neutral or negative relationships with their mothers, demonstrated worse feelings when their mothers made the choice for them compared to when they made the choice themselves. In Study 2, we employed similar methods, but used the following three conditions: the self-choice condition, the mother reasonable-choice condition (where the mother provided a reasonable explanation for the choice) and the mother unreasonable-choice condition (where the mother forced the child to share without providing a reason). We found that, when sharing with the first puppet, children were significantly more likely to share in the mother reasonable-choice and mother unreasonable-choice conditions than in the self-choice condition. However, when sharing with a new puppet, children in the mother reasonable-choice condition shared more stickers than those in the self-choice condition or the mother unreasonable-choice condition. Taken together, these two studies show that children’s prosocial motivations do not necessarily decrease when others make choices for them. Instead, for children positively connected with their mothers, following their mother’s choices can lead to positive feelings to a similar degree as those experienced when making choices themselves. Additionally, mothers’ reasonable choices and guidance can facilitate subsequent sharing behaviors. The findings of this study have significant implications about the development of preschoolers' prosocial motivation. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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“Crisis” or “opportunity”: Latent patterns of family, school, community risks and assets on psychological crisis in adolescence SUN Fang, LI Huanhuan, GUO Yueyan, WEI Shijie 2023, 55 (11):  1827-1844.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01827 Abstract ( 2795 )   HTML ( 307 )   PDF (709KB) ( 4300 )   Peer Review Comments Extensive studies have demonstrated the buffering effect of risk factors or the promotion effect of protective assets within each setting of family, school, or community on psychological crisis in adolescence. Although many adolescents expose to risks and assets in multiple contexts, the independent and interactive effects of such cross-contextual factors on multiple psychological crisis have not been studied. This study addressed this gap by examining latent patterns of risk factors or/and protective assets in multiple contexts on non-lethal crisis state (CS), non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), suicide attempt (SA) in adolescence. Further, based on the perspectives of positive youth development and psychological pain, this study explored the specific patterns considered as immune barriers to psychological crisis, and specific patterns with cumulative and clustering effects on psychological crisis. A sample of 2249 junior middle school students were invited to participant. The adolescents completed psychological crisis (including CS, NSSI, SA), three-dimensional psychological pain (TDPPS), positive youth development (PYD), family conflict, parental control, campus stressors, community unsafety, family resilience, parental involvement, friendship quality, perceived teacher autonomy support, neighborhood friendship and community engagement scales. Based on Latent Profile Analysis (LPA), the patterns of risk factors and TDPPS, patterns of assets and PYD and patterns of risks and assets in multiple contexts were analyzed using Mplus7.4. Further, the predictive effects of distinct patterns on psychological crisis and the relative mediated effects of TDPPS and PYD were analyzed by SPSS21.0. The results showed that: (1) Based on the risk perspective, adolescents at high family risk usually had higher risk in school and community context. The level of CS, NSSI, SA increased with the level of risk factors. Notably, compared to moderate risk-high painful feeling class, adolescents in high family risk-high pain avoidance class had higher level of SA (OR = 6.38, p < 0.001) and NSSI (OR = 2.32, p < 0.001). (2) Based on the protective perspective, the more assets adolescents had, the higher level of PYD, and the lower level of CS, NSSI, SA they were. Compared to high combined protection-high PYD class, adolescents in moderate family protection-high PYD class have similar level of CS (p = 0.087) and SA (OR = 6.26, p = 0.096). Compared to moderate family protection-high PYD class, adolescents in moderate community protection-moderate PYD class have similar level of NSSI (OR = 1.16, p = 0.077). (3) Based on the integration perspective, the risk factors and protective assets across multiple contexts were divided into four patterns: high family risk-low assets class (class1, 8.38%), high school risk-moderate assets class (class2, 14.72%), balanced class (class3, 53.41%) and low risk-high assets class (class4, 23.49%). Compared to class3, adolescents in class1 and class2 had higher level of CS, NSSI, and SA, adolescents in class4 had lower level of CS, NSSI, and SA. Taken the balanced class as reference group, the relative mediated effects of TDPPS and PYD between the other three classes and CS, NSSI, and SA were significant. This study deepened the understanding of the effects of distinct patterns of family, school and community risks and TDPPS on psychological crisis in adolescences, emerging on cumulative and clusters effects. Psychological crisis could be buffered by distinct patterns of assets across family, school and community context and PYD. Adolescent crisis intervention should simultaneously focus on addressing risks, and establishing a supportive system across multiple contexts. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Videoconferencing counseling online will not weaken treatment outcomes: Evidence from comparison with face-to-face counseling in-person SUN Qiwu, WANG Zhihuan, REN Zhihong, YU Lixia, WU Caizhi 2023, 55 (11):  1845-1858.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01845 Abstract ( 2236 )   HTML ( 225 )   PDF (769KB) ( 3073 )   Peer Review Comments The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a shift from in-person face-to-face counseling (F2F) to online videoconferencing counseling (VCP), which poses the question: how does VCP affect treatment outcomes compared to F2F? Existing research has demonstrated the equivalence of VCP and F2F in terms of effectiveness. However, the working alliance, a key common factor in F2F, has been found to be lower in quality in VCP than in F2F in a recent meta-analysis. Moreover, only one study has examined the reciprocal relationship between working alliance and treatment outcomes in VCP at the within-patient level. The present study aims to (a) compare the treatment outcomes between VCP and F2F using longitudinal data from a naturalistic setting; and (b) explore the mutual influence of working alliance and treatment outcomes in VCP and F2F at the within-patient level. This study was conducted in a counseling center of a university in central China, and participants were arranged to receive VCP or F2F. The final sample consisted of 525 college students, of whom 117 received VCP and 408 received F2F. The only difference between the two conditions was the mode of delivery (VCP vs. F2F). Participants completed the CORE-OM-10 before each session and the Session Alliance Inventory (SAI) after each session. They also completed the PHQ-9, GAD-7, and CORE-OM-34 at pre- and post-treatment. The data from sessions 1 to 6 were analyzed using the Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM). A multi-group RI-CLPM comparison was conducted to examine the alliance-outcome relationship in VCP and F2F at the within-patient level. The within-patient analysis revealed that SAI was a significant predictor of CORE-OM in the subsequent session, and CORE-OM was a significant predictor of SAI in the same session. The multi-group comparison indicated that the predictive effect of SAI on CORE-OM did not differ significantly between VCP and F2F. However, the working alliance quality in VCP was significantly lower than that in F2F after the first and the fourth sessions, but not after the other sessions. The post-treatment analysis, using Propensity Score Matching with pretest CORE-OM34, PHQ-9 and GAD-7 as predictor variables, showed no significant difference in PHQ-9, GAD-7, and CORE-OM34 between VCP (N = 89) and F2F (N = 336). These findings indicate that VCP is as effective as F2F in reducing psychological distress, and that clients can establish a stable working alliance in VCP over time, even if they initially experience difficulties in adapting to the online mode. Moreover, the reciprocal influence of working alliance and treatment outcomes in VCP is similar to that in F2F. This study offers empirical support for the use of VCP, especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Influence of social distance and promise levels on trust decisions: An ERPs study LI Mei, LI Jin, ZHANG Guanfei, ZHONG Yiping, LI Hong 2023, 55 (11):  1859-1871.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01859 Abstract ( 1850 )   HTML ( 205 )   PDF (745KB) ( 2205 )   Peer Review Comments Previous research has revealed that trust plays an important role in promoting functioning, economic growth, and individual well-being in human society. Trust refers to individuals’ willingness to take risks to hand over their resources to others in the context of social uncertainty. Based on rational signal theory, individuals tend to make social decisions (e.g. trust) according to perceived social information of others, such as social identity, gestures, language, and behaviors. Among these, trustees’ social identity and their promises are important social information that convey whether an individual is trustworthy and reliable. Previous research has only examined the effect of promise levels on trust decisions, or the effect social distance on trust decisions. However, little is known about how promise levels and social distance interact to affect trust behaviors and its neural mechanisms. We adapted a Trust Game (TG) and the event-related potentials (ERPs) to examine the neurocognitive mechanisms of the effect of promise levels and social distance on trust behaviors. In particular, participates were asked to choose whether to trust their friends and strangers when they made high and low-level promises while electroencephalograms (EEGs) were recorded. Within each round, participants were informed of the promiser and their promise. We adopted two promise levels from previous studies: high-level promises would return 28 yuan (70%), and low-level 12 yuan (30%). The social distance includes both friend and stranger levels. The experiment consisted of 600 trials, including 150 trials for each condition. The behavioral results indicated that when the promiser was a friend, participants were more likely to invest and this was not affected by promise levels. However, when the promiser was a stranger, participants were more likely to invest when they were informed of low-level promises than high-level promises. The ERP results showed that the P2 was larger for the high-level promises than for the low-level promises. More importantly, when the promiser was a stranger, the N2 was more negative when they were informed of low-level promises than high-level promises. Conversely, the P3 was larger when they were informed of high-level promises than low-level promises. However, when the promiser was a friend, the N2 and P3 amplitudes had no difference. These results suggest that motivations of trusting behaviors toward friends and strangers are driven by different psychological mechanisms. Individuals trust friends more, and when the promiser is a friend, individuals can be motivated by the mutual interests of self and friends when making trust choices. However, when the promiser is a stranger, individuals are only driven by self-interest, and they do not care about strangers’ benefits when making trust choices. The present study provides insight into how the brain processes the interplay of social distance and promise levels on trust decisions, which broadens the previous insight into understanding trust behaviors. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Occam’s razor effect in packaging: The impact of simple versus complex aesthetics on product efficacy judgments CHEN Siyun, XIAO Tingwen, XIONG Jiwei, PENG Kaiping 2023, 55 (11):  1872-1888.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01872 Abstract ( 2364 )   HTML ( 280 )   PDF (839KB) ( 2898 )   Peer Review Comments People typically buy products for a certain function (e.g., laundry detergent for cleaning clothes, energy drinks for refreshing, ibuprofen tablets for pain relief, and hand cream for moisturizing). Marketers spare no effort to utilize marketing elements to enhance consumers’ perception of product efficacy. This research documents an intriguing empirical phenomenon whereby visual simplicity in packages increases the valuation of product efficacy. Seven studies were conducted to verify our predictions. Study 1 was an Implicit Association Test, providing initial evidence for the link between visual simplicity and effectiveness attributes. That is, visual simplicity is more associated with high effectiveness, whereas visual complexity is more associated with low effectiveness. Moving forward, Studies 2A, 2B, and 2C were conducted to confirm the core effect of visual simplicity on perceived product efficacy by using different principles that determine visual complexity. In particular, we tested the core effect of visual simplicity on product efficacy judgment across different product categories, including handwash (Study 2A) and medical products (Studies 2B and 2C). The results showed that products with simple aesthetics are perceived as more effective, in support of Hypothesis 1. To reveal the underlying mechanism of the effect of package simplicity on product efficacy, perceived goal focus was introduced to this research. Study 3 provided empirical evidence for this process. A between-subjects design of a single factor (package simplicity: simple vs. complex) was utilized to test the proposed underlying mechanism. The results showed that products with simple aesthetics are perceived as more focused on the goal of utilitarian benefits, thus resulting in a higher evaluation of product efficacy. In contrast, products with complex aesthetics are perceived as less focused on the goal of utilitarian benefits, thus leading to a lower evaluation of product efficacy. These results provided additional evidence for Hypothesis 2. Furthermore, Study 4 was conducted to identify the moderating role of zero-sum beliefs about products (i.e., Hypothesis 3). In this study, we manipulated package complexity and measured participants’ zero-sum beliefs about products. The results indicated that when participants’ zero-sum belief is strong, the effect of package simplicity on product efficacy will be replicated, which echoes the findings from Studies 2A, 2B, 2C, and 3. However, when participants’ zero-sum belief is weak, the effect of package simplicity on product effectiveness will be attenuated. Thus, the moderating role of zero-sum beliefs is significant, confirming Hypothesis 3. Finally, Study 5 manipulated, rather than measured zero-sum beliefs to test the moderation. Additionally, we confirmed that the core effect holds only when priming participants with utilitarian appeals. Study 5 employed 2 (package simplicity: simple vs. complex) by 2 (mindset: weak zero-sum vs. control) by 2 (appeal: utilitarian vs. hedonic) between-subjects design. As expected, when participants hold a weak zero-sum belief about products or are primed with a hedonic appeal, the core effect of package simplicity on product efficacy judgment is attenuated. Collectively, seven studies demonstrate that participants perceive products in a simple (vs. complex) package as more effective than complex counterparts. Notably, this effect is mediated by consumers’ perceived goal focus of product function. Moreover, this effect is weakened among consumers with a weak zero-sum belief about products and who are framed with hedonic appeals. These findings have significant implications for theoretical research regarding product perceptions and visual aesthetics. From the managerial perspective, we suggest that marketers utilize packages with simple aesthetics when they aim to highlight product effectiveness. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

Theory and History of Psychology

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Extended mind: Is the brain the only basis for realizing the mind? SU Jiajia, YE Haosheng 2023, 55 (11):  1889-1902.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01889 Abstract ( 2602 )   HTML ( 147 )   PDF (571KB) ( 3450 )   Peer Review Comments Today, society is experiencing an era of rapid development in science and technology. Information technologies, such as the Internet, computers, and smart phones have significantly expanded human cognitive abilities and changed human emotional experiences, making people gradually accept the belief that memory and thinking are not limited to the brain. This has raised concerns about the problem of the so-called ‘extended mind’. The extended mind thesis maintains that mental processes such as memory, thinking, emotions, and affection are not confined to the brain or central nervous system of an organism, nor is the brain the only organ of the mind. On the contrary, under proper conditions, the organism’s non-neural body, the environment outside the body, and objects in the environment all play a constitutive role in mental activities. The early extended mind research focused on cognitive process, and has undergone three waves of development. In recent years, research has begun to focus on extended emotions. The most basic manifestation of extended emotion is the dependence of emotional experience on the body. It is argued that emotional experience transcends the boundaries of the head and extends to the non-nervous body, known as the hypothesis of bodily extended emotions. In addition, extended emotion holds that the carrier of emotion not only exists in the organism, but also transcends the boundary of skin and contains external resources carrying emotions; this is known as the hypothesis of environmentally extended emotions. Emotions are individual regardless of whether they are physically or environmentally extended. However, in many conditions, emotions are not individual, but achieved through multiple people. In such cases, the emotion is shared by two or more individuals at the same time, the so-called hypothesis of socially extended emotions. The significance from cognitive to emotional extension is that the entire mental process of human beings, including human conscious experience, can transcend the boundaries of the head and skin and extend to the external resources available in the environment. This is known as the extended consciousness thesis. From cognitive, to emotional, and to consciousness extension, mental life transcends the Cartesian gap and straddles the mind, the body, and the environment. The mind transcends the boundaries of the skull and skin, that is, the place of the mind is not entirely confined to the brain, and the latter is not the only basis of the former. Does mental life have no boundary with the objective world? Can mental life spread infinitely into every aspect of the universe? When we say that the subject and the world are a whole and inseparable, it does not mean that there is no difference between them, nor does it mean that there is no boundary in the mental life. However, the boundary of mental life is not ontological, but epistemological, similar to the Markov blanket concept that exists only statistically. Extended mind thesis shows that cognition, emotion and even consciousness can break the boundaries of the brain and extend into the body and the environment. The cognitive boundaries, like a “Markov blanket”, are epistemologically malleable, depending entirely on how the organism chooses meaningful external resources to establish a coupled cognitive system with. In this sense, the extended mind is bound to be built on the theory of embodied cognition, that is, cognition is a trinity dynamic system in which the brain is embedded in the body and the body is embedded in the environment, and the “body” plays an active role. References | Related Articles | Metrics