Spatial navigation involves both egocentric (body-centered) and allocentric (environment-centered) spatial representations, which are hosted in structurally and functionally segregated brain regions. The two types of representations are flexibly weighted in response to changing environmental cues and landmarks during the navigational process, thereby achieving a stable and robust neural code of the target location. However, it remains unknown whether and how improvements in real-world navigational proficiency are related to these two types of spatial representations.
In the present study, participants who were unfamiliar with the campus layout (newly arrived university freshmen) received a real-world navigation training for 20 days. Before and after the training, participants received fMRI scanning when they performed a distance judgment task and a paper folding task (as a control). In addition, they were comprehensively tested for their navigational ability via several behavioral tasks (live pointing, offsite direction estimation and offsite distance estimation) outside the scanner. A control group comprised participants who underwent the same fMRI scanning and behavioral tests but did not receive any training. By comparing the training-induced changes in regional activation and task-based global functional connectivity (FC) patterns between the two groups, we investigated the neural correlates of the improvement in real-world navigation performance.
We found that the real-world navigation training improved participants' performance during all the behavioral tasks. At the neural level, we observed significant training-induced activation enhancement in the right superior parietal lobule (rSPL), a core brain region that hosts egocentric representation. Moreover, the training increased the global FC pattern stability with the rSPL as the seed region during the distance judgment task, although it had no significant effects on the FC pattern stability during the baseline task. Finally, the increase in global FC pattern stability also predicted individual's improvement in behavioral performance during the distance judgment task. Notably, these effects were found only in the trained group; no similar effects were observed in the control group. These findings indicated that improvement in real-word navigation ability was associated with enhanced egocentric representation. Moreover, the navigation training consolidated the information exchange routes among brain regions, thereby enhancing the precision of cognitive map retrieval.
In summary, our study highlights the importance of egocentric representation enhancement in rSPL in improving real-world navigation ability in unfamiliar environments. Furthermore, navigation training facilitates spatial information retrieval by reinforcing the information exchange pathways between the rSPL and other brain areas.

Time is one of the fundamental dimensions of the world. Correspondingly, duration perception is also crucial for everyday activities. However, one's emotional state distorts duration perception. Some timing researchers assume that such distortion reflects processes that allow individuals to adaptively respond to changes in their environment. In recent decades, a large body of studies examined the effect of basic emotion on duration perception. However, the results were mixed. Specifically, although some studies supported that basic emotions (fear, anger, disgust, sadness, happiness) prolonged duration perception compared to neutral stimuli, there were also contradictory results. Furthermore, the results of the comparisons among basic emotions were more mixed. Thus, we conducted a three-level meta-analysis and network meta-analysis to investigate the effect of basic emotion on time perception and moderating factors.
We conducted an exhaustive literature search using sequential strategies to locate studies that provide data on the effects of basic emotion on duration perception, the last literature update was on July 12, 2024. The three-level meta-analysis was conducted using the metafor package. The procedure was as follows: we calculated the standardized mean difference (g) in duration perception between basic emotions and neutral stimuli. Then, we performed a main effect test using a three-level random-effects model, tested moderator variables using a three-level mixed-effects model, and assessed publication bias using funnel plots, two-level Egger regression, three-level Egger regression, and the trim-and-fill method. The network meta-analysis was conducted using the netmeta package. The procedure was as follows: a random-effects model was used to fit the network model, followed by ranking the duration perception of basic emotions based on p-scores and calculating the league table; finally, model inconsistency was assessed using the full design-by-treatment interaction random-effects model and node splitting method.
A total of 3504 potential literature was retrieved. After screening, 36 articles met the inclusion criteria for meta-analysis. The three-level random-effects model found that the duration perception of basic emotions was longer compared to neutral stimuli, g = 0.24, 95% CI [0.13, 0.36], p < 0.001. Moderation analysis revealed that the type of basic emotion, age group, and time task were significant moderator variables. Additionally, main effect analyses conducted for each basic emotion individually revealed that the duration perception of happiness, fear, and anger was longer than that of neutral stimuli. In the network meta-analysis, we included only studies that used the time bisection method and samples of early adulthood individuals. The results revealed that duration perception was longer for fear and anger than for sad emotions.
Combining the three-level meta-analysis and the network meta-analysis, the following conclusions were drawn: Compared to neutral stimuli, fear, and anger emotions can consistently induce prolonged duration perception; additionally, the duration perception for fear and anger is longer than for sadness. This pattern aligns with the “adaptive” perspective, supporting the notion that the prolongation of duration perception by emotions is an adaptive outcome. The more important an emotion is for “harm avoidance,” the longer the duration of perception it induces.

Judgments of learning (JOLs) refer to learners' predictive evaluations of the likelihood that they will successfully remember a given item in a future test. Previous studies have primarily focused on examining the accuracy of JOLs and elucidating the mechanisms underlying JOL formation. However, recent studies suggest that the act of making JOLs can alter memory itself, a phenomenon known as the reactivity effect. Typically, participants made a JOL after learning each item. This metamemory monitoring process may heighten individuals' metacognitive awareness of their memory compared to conditions without JOLs, thereby triggering the reactivity effect. Zhao et al. (2023) further differentiated the reactivity effects of JOLs on item-specific memory and inter-item relational memory. They found that making JOLs can enhance item-specific memory but concurrently weaken inter-item relational memory (e.g., memory for serial order or semantic relational information). A potential explanation for this is the item-specific and relational account, which posits that making JOLs enhances encoding of item-specific details, resulting in a positive reactivity effect. However, because cognitive resources are limited, allocating more cognitive resources to processing item-specific details reduces resources available for processing inter-item relations, leading to a negative reactivity effect on inter-item relational memory. The current study employed on the DRM paradigm to investigate the reactivity effect on false memory and to test the item-specific and relational account.
Experiment 1 explored the reactivity effects of JOLs on false and veridical memory. Sixty-four participants learned DRM word lists, each containing 11 DRM study words and 1 critical lure. Critical lures were withheld during the learning phase and presented only during the recognition test. Half of the DRM word lists were studied under the JOL condition, and the remaining half were learned under the no-JOL condition. Participants were instructed to learn each DRM word individually. The key distinction between the JOL and no-JOL conditions was that, in the former, participants completed item-by-item JOLs while learning each word. After the learning task, participants completed a distractor task, followed by a recognition test. The results showed that item-by-item JOLs disrupted semantic processing among DRM words and decreased false memory (i.e., false alarm rates for critical lures). Concurrently, item-by-item JOLs facilitated item-specific processing, yielding a positive reactivity effect on memory for studied words.
Experiments 2 and 3 changed presentation format of DRM lists and asked participants to make global JOLs for a whole word list, rather than for each word, to examine the reactivity effect on both intra- and inter-item relational memory. Experiment 2 used pure DRM lists, with six words from the same thematic word lists presented together. Experiment 3 employed mixed DRM lists, with each list containing six study words from different thematic word lists but with shared thematic relationships across lists. In the no-JOL condition, DRM words were not presented individually. Instead, pure (Experiment 2) or mixed word lists (Experiment 3) were simultaneously displayed on screen for a 12 s study duration per list. Participants in both experiments provided global JOLs for each list, predicting the number of words they would remember in the subsequent test. The results showed that making global JOLs facilitated processing of intra-item semantic relations but disrupted processing of inter-item semantic relations.
In summary, the current study revealed that item-by-item JOLs disrupt semantic relational processing among individual DRM words, reducing false memory but promoting processing of item-specific information, thereby facilitating recognition of studied words. Additionally, global JOLs enhance intra-item semantic relational processing but impair inter-item semantic relational processing. The results support the item-specific and relational account and elucidate the cognitive mechanisms underlying the reactivity effect. Moreover, these findings offer valuable insights into the development of effective interventions for mitigating false memory.

The spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect demonstrates that responding to small numbers with the left key is faster than with the right key, and the reverse is true for large numbers. A long-standing debate concerns whether the SNARC effect occurs only in the early stimulus-representation stage, only in the late response-selection stage or in both stages simultaneously. This study aims to manipulate these two processing stages to investigate the effects of interference on the SNARC effect.
Using the global and local paradigm, a compound stimulus—arrows made up of numbers—was designed as the experimental material. In Experiment 1a, a within-subject experimental design with 2 (Number magnitude: small, large) × 3 (Arrow direction: left, right, left-right bidirectional) × 2 (Response hand: left hand, right hand) was conducted. Forty subjects were asked to judge whether a number is larger or smaller than 5. In Experiment 1b, a within-subject experimental design with 2 (Number magnitude: small, large) × 3 (Arrow direction: up, down, up-down bidirectional) × 2 (Response hand: left hand, right hand) was employed. Forty subjects were asked to judge whether a number is larger or smaller than 5. Experiment 2 followed the design of Experiment 1a, but forty subjects were asked to judge whether the arrow pointed left or right.
Results showed that horizontal interference with the spatial representation of numbers hindered the SNARC effect (Experiment 1a), but vertical interference with the had no influence (Experiment 1b). Interference at the response-selection stage also impeded the SNARC effect (Experiment 2).
According to global precedence theory, the global representation of horizontal arrow directions interferes with the spatial representation of local numbers, causing the SNARC effect to disappear in Experiment 1a. According to mental number line theory, individuals mentally represent numbers along a left-to-right axis. Thus, interference from the global representation of vertical arrow directions does not influence the SNARC effect in Experiment 1b. In Experiment 2, when arrows made up of numbers were used, participants judged arrow directions, and the numbers were automatically processed and spatially represented unconsciously. However, the cognitive resources required for the arrow direction judgment or the occupation of corresponding reaction positions during the response-selection stage diminished the SNARC effect.
In summary, the early stimulus-representation stage and late response-selection stage are crucial for the occurrence of the SNARC effect, supporting the two-stage processing model of SNARC effect.

Embodied cognition theories assume that conceptual representations are essentially rooted in modal experiential information. However, abstract concepts that do not refer to entities with a direct sensorimotor connection have challenged these embodied theories. For example, it is still debated whether abstract verb meanings are represented in the sensorimotor system. After screening and analyzing previous studies, the involvement of the motor system in the representations of abstract verbs is believed to be modulated by motor features. Abstract verbs that are learned in conjunction with more motor experiences are more likely to be predominant in motor features and accordingly are grounded much more strongly in the motor system. The present study aimed to explore the causal role of motor features of abstract verbs in their representations in the motor system and provide an explanation for the variance of previous results.
Forty-four participants (6 males) were recruited for Experiment 1; one male participant withdrew for private reasons, and all of his data were removed from the analysis. Experiment 1 lasted four days. On Day 1 and Day 4, pre- and postlearning tests, respectively, were conducted; in these tests, participants were instructed to perform a lexical decision task first inside a 3.0 T Siemens Prisma magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner. During scanning, 240 words (including 60 target novel words) were presented in a pseudorandomized sequence within an event-related design. Then, outside the scanner, the same behavioral task with 120 words (including 60 target novel words) was performed on computers with responses collected according to the action‒sentence compatibility effect paradigm. On Days 2 and 3, participants spent approximately one hour each day learning and memorizing 60 target novel words and their interpretive abstract meanings, which were printed on cards. While learning, participants were asked to perform a specific hand movement toward or away from themselves as required, with the aim of successfully increasing the predominance of motor features associated with the target novel words. The neuroimaging data acquired during the fMRI tests were preprocessed and analyzed using SPM and DPABI. At the whole-brain level, a 2 × 2 ANOVA was performed. The two within-subject factors were the testing phase (pre- vs. postlearning) and word type (learning vs. nonlearning novel words). We found that for learning novel words, compared with the prelearning test, there were stronger activations in motion-related brain areas (such as the left precentral gyrus) during the postlearning test. Furthermore, the scores for motor features associated with learning novel words significantly predicted the degree of neural activation in the motor system (i.e., the right pre- and postcentral gyri, the left precentral gyrus, etc.) in the postlearning test.
Thirty participants from Experiment 1 participated in Experiment 2. They were instructed to learn 30 novel words selected from the above 60 target words in a similar way as in Experiment 1. After approximately 30 minutes of learning, the participants performed the lexical decision task while their arm's electromyographic activities were recorded with a wireless electromyography (EMG) measurement module from BIOPAC. The results showed that processing learning novel words with increased motor features, compared with nonlearning novel words (i.e., the baseline), elicited increased EMG activities in the right extensor digitorum muscle.
In conclusion, the present study confirmed the causal role of motor features in the embodied representations (i.e., representations in the motor system) of abstract verbs. An increase in motor features makes the representations of abstract verbs more dependent on the motor system. Moreover, the processing of abstract verbs with sufficient motor features could elicit motor resonance in the peripheral motor system. These findings provide new evidence and important interpretations for embodied cognition theories.

The visual complexity effect is considered one of the “big three effects” in word recognition. In alphabetic reading (such as English and German), visual complexity is primarily reflected in word length. It is well established that word length affects both the “when” and “where” decisions of eye movement control in alphabetic reading, yielding more and longer fixations on long words relative to short words. Some researchers have used changes in the word length effect with repeated reading as a measure of vocabulary learning outcomes in alphabetic reading. In written Chinese text, visual complexity of words is influenced not only by word length, similar to alphabetic reading, but also by the number of strokes in a word. In the present study, we conducted two parallel eye movement studies to examine how visual complexity (measured by words' number of strokes and word length) influenced novel word learning in Chinese reading. We, specifically, investigated how visual complexity effects changed with cumulative learning.
Two-character or three-character pseudowords were constructed as novel words. Each novel word was embedded into 15 highly constrained contexts for readers to establish novel lexical representations. There were five learning phases in our experiment. Participants read three sentences containing one novel word per learning phase, and their eye movements were recorded during sentence reading. In Experiment 1, we examined how the number of strokes in a word influenced word identification during Chinese word learning. The number of strokes in two-character novel words was manipulated as being either high or low. In Experiment 2, we examined how word length influenced novel word learning in Chinese reading by using two-character and three-character pseudowords as novel words. We included “Learning phase” as a continuous variable into the model to further examine how the visual complexity effects changed with exposure during Chinese novel word learning.
We found that both the number of strokes and word length both influenced the “when” decision of eye movement control during Chinese novel word learning, the fewer the strokes and the shorter the word length, the shorter the fixations on novel words. In terms of the “where” decision, the number of strokes determined how long the saccade length into the novel words, which was more likely to relate to parafoveal processing, whilst word length influenced how long the saccade length leaving the novel words, which was highly related to foveal processing. We suggest that the process of stroke number information might influence the decision of where to land the eyes on novel words and the process of word length information might influence the decision of where to land the eyes when leaving novel words.
We also found that the effect of number of strokes did not change significantly with exposure, indicating that the process of stroke number occurs both in the early and late stages of word learning, which supports “visual constraint hypothesis”. In contrast, the word length effect gradually decreases with exposure, showing the familiarity or learning effect, which aligns with “visual and linguistic constraint hypothesis”. These findings suggest a difference in the mechanisms of number of strokes and word length in Chinese reading accompanied by vocabulary acquisition: Stroke number might function as a form of low-level visual information, impacting the visual processing of vocabulary; while word length is more similar to the processing of linguistic information, affecting vocabulary processing at a higher level.

Previous studies have revealed that individuals with developmental dyslexia (DD) experienced an orthography-phonology integration deficit. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, researchers have observed hypoactivation in the superior temporal area when individuals with DD performed an orthography-phonology integration task. Additionally, individuals with DD exhibited a delayed and reduced mismatch negative wave in an audiovisual oddball paradigm when using event-related potentials. However, some studies have found no significant differences between normal readers and DD readers when making decisions about a phoneme preceded by a grapheme. These controversial results may be attributed to the varying manifestations of the mutual influence between orthography and phonology during orthography-phonology integration in DD. Nevertheless, there is a lack of comprehensive research on this topic. The present study aims to explore the mutual influences between orthography and phonology during orthography-phonology integration in Chinese children with DD.
Two experiments were designed to separately investigate the mutual influence between orthography and phonology during orthography-phonology integration in individuals with DD. In Experiment 1, we explored the influence of phonology on orthographic processing. 30 children with DD and 29 age-matched (CA) children participated in Experiment 1. Participants were asked to decide whether a grapheme was real or one invented for the purposes of this study. Each grapheme was accompanied by the presentation of a phoneme, which was either congruent or incongruent with the grapheme. This experiment also included a baseline condition in which only a grapheme was presented. In Experiment 2, we examined the influence of orthography on phonological processing. 32 children with DD and 32 CA children participated in Experiment 2. Participants were asked to decide whether a phoneme was real or invented. Each phoneme was presented with either a congruent or incongruent grapheme. This experiment also included a baseline condition in which only a phoneme was presented.
The results of Experiment 1 revealed a facilitating effect in the congruent condition compared to the grapheme only condition, but no inhibitory effect was observed in the incongruent condition. Furthermore, no significant group difference was found in the influence of phonology on orthography after controlling for the effect of the only grapheme condition. These findings indicate that Chinese children with DD do not exhibit a deficit in the influence of phonology on orthography during orthography-phonology integration. In Experiment 2, a facilitating effect was observed in the congruent condition and an inhibitory effect was observed in the incongruent condition compared to the only phoneme condition. These effects were significantly lower in children with DD than in CA children. These results indicate that Chinese children with DD exhibit a deficit in the influence of orthography on phonology after controlling for the effect of the only phoneme condition. The collective findings from Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 suggest that Chinese children with DD only exhibit a deficit in the influence of orthography on phonology when integrating a phoneme and a grapheme, while the influence of phonology on orthographical processing remains intact.
In conclusion, the present research provides insights into the mechanism of dyslexics' deficit in orthography-phonology integration. Notably, this study revealed that this deficit primarily manifests in the influence of orthography on phonological processing. These findings suggest that the orthography-phonology integration deficit in Chinese children with DD may be attributed to an impaired effect of graphemes on phonological processing.

Trust is a fundamental aspect of social interaction and development, significantly impacting children's physical and mental well-being, as well as their social engagement. Previous research has shown that young children do not trust others indiscriminately; instead, they make selective trust judgments based on available information. Characteristics of the speaker, such as ability, benevolence, and integrity, as outlined in Mayer et al.'s trust model, influence these judgments. While much research has focused on the effects of ability and benevolence, integrity—which involves adherence to promises, fairness, and justice—has received less attention. This study specifically examines how the act of keeping or breaking promises influences young children's trust judgments.
Two experiments using the selective trust paradigm were conducted to explore this issue. A sample size of 100 children was determined to be necessary for an effect size of w = 0.30, α = 0.05, and 1 - β = 0.85, calculated using G*Power 3.1. In Experiment 1, a 3 (age: 3, 4, and 5 years) × 2 (moral valence of promises: moral vs. immoral) × 2 (fulfillment of promises: kept vs. broken) × 2 (context: declarative vs. promising) mixed factorial design was used. Age was a between-subjects variable, while moral valence, fulfillment, and context were within-subjects variables. This experiment involved 118 preschoolers (62 girls, Mean age = 4.99 years, SD = 0.78) in a binary choice paradigm, using four conflict scenarios to examine their trust judgments based on whether promises were kept or broken. Experiment 2 employed a single choice paradigm with 112 preschoolers (57 girls, Mean age = 4.94 years, SD = 0.80), presenting them with four stories to assess their level of trust.
Results from Experiment 1 revealed that preschoolers selectively trusted promisors who kept moral promises and those who broke immoral promises, as well as their subsequent assertions and new promises. Older children (5.5~6.5 years) were more likely to trust promisors who kept moral promises and those who broke immoral promises compared to younger children (3.5~4.5 years). Additionally, preschoolers were more accurate in their trust judgments towards promisors who kept moral promises than those who broke immoral promises. Experiment 2 further revealed significant differences in trust levels: kept moral promise > broke immoral promise > broke moral promise ≈ kept immoral promise.
This study is the first to examine the development of trust judgment regarding moral promises in preschoolers aged 3.5~6.5 years. The findings indicate that preschoolers consider both the moral valence and fulfillment of promises when making trust judgments. As they mature, preschoolers increasingly trust promisors who keep moral promises and those who break immoral promises. Moreover, the highest trust levels were found for promisors who kept moral promises, followed by those who broke immoral promises, with the least trust placed in promisors who broke moral promises or kept immoral promises. These results offer valuable insights into the development of moral understanding and trust judgments in young children.

Research on the connection between altitude and depression in China remains scarce, despite the country's extensive plateau regions. While the impact of altitude on physical health is well documented, existing studies have largely focused on social adaptation or physical well-being, leaving the relationship between altitude and depression underexplored. This study addresses this gap by examining how altitude affects depression among Chinese residents.
Data were drawn from various sources, including the 2016~2020 China Family Panel Studies, the 2015 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, the 2016 survey on physical and mental health in Yushu, and statistics from the China Urban Statistical Yearbook and China Statistical Yearbook. The study involved the use of several statistical techniques, including multilevel linear models, mediation models, and epidemiological case‒control methods. The results revealed a significant positive association between altitude and depression, even when personal factors such as age, sex, education, and chronic illness were controlled for, along with regional factors such as temperature, PM 2.5 concentration, per capita GDP, and hospital bed availability. Notably, per capita GDP and C-reactive protein levels were found to mediate this relationship. The risk of depression in individuals living at altitudes of 500 ~ 1 000 metres, 1 000 ~ 2 000 metres, and 4 000 ~ 6 000 metres was 1.53~1.79 times, 1.67~2.25 times, and 9 times greater, respectively, than the risk in for individuals living below 500 metres.
The study also revealed age-specific variations in the risk of depression. Middle-aged and elderly individuals living at altitudes between 500~2 000 metres are more vulnerable to depression than younger individuals are. In contrast, young people residing at altitudes of 4 000 ~ 6 000 metres face a greater risk of depression than their older counterparts do. These findings highlight the diverse impacts of altitude on the risk of depression across different age groups.
In conclusion, this study highlights altitude as a significant risk factor affecting depression among Chinese residents, which suggests the need for targeted mental health interventions that consider both age and altitude. It also challenges the traditional view of age and mental health, suggesting that both individual and environmental factors should be considered in mental health prevention and intervention strategies.

Upstream indirect reciprocity, a widespread phenomenon observed both in real-world settings and controlled experimental environments, extends beyond conventional reciprocity systems and plays a crucial role in fostering large-scale human cooperation and maintaining social order. Although this social phenomenon has garnered significant scholarly attention, existing research remains insufficient in uncovering its underlying mechanisms.
Previous studies typically use a two-stage dictator game to investigate upstream indirect reciprocity. According to meta-analyses of experimental literature on dictator games, dictators typically allocated 28% of the total to recipients, with allocations exceeding 50% being extremely rare (Engel, 2011). Surprisingly, most existing research considers equal distribution (where A allocates 50% to B) as the threshold for determining whether A has good intentions, despite lacking sufficient justification for this criterion. Different from prior work, we propose that individuals assess others' intentions relative to the social mean as a reference point. Based on this premise, we hypothesize that when individuals receive an allocation above the social mean, they are more likely to pass on a value above the mean to third parties, whereas allocations below the mean will result in values passed below the mean. If individuals indeed pass on a higher or lower value based on whether they received above- or below-mean allocations, this result might also be explained by an alternative hypothesis: the income effect, where people give more when they have more resources. Therefore, this study investigates whether intention-based indirect reciprocity persists event after controlling for the income effect.
We recruited 42 undergraduate participants for the experiment, which consists of two parts: a standard dictator game followed by an indirect reciprocity experiment. The second experiment employed a 2 (distribution below the social mean vs. above the social mean) × 2 (human allocation vs. computer allocation) within-subject design. The main experiment featured both a human allocation task and a computer allocation task, with task order counterbalanced among participants. Each task included 156 trials, for a total of 312 trials.
The results show that both distribution outcomes and perceived intentions significantly influence upstream indirect reciprocity. Specifically, participants allocated more to third parties after receiving above-mean distributions from a human compared to a computer, while below-mean distributions from a human led to lower allocations than those from a computer. EEG data revealed that N1 components were modulated by perceived intention, with human allocations eliciting greater N1 responses. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) component was influenced by distribution outcomes, with below-mean distributions evoking larger FRN responses than above-mean distributions. Finally, the P3 component was regulated by the interaction between distribution outcome and intention.

In the era of mobile internet, people inevitably find themselves frequently in a multitasking state and are likely to receive online invitations to participate in social projects, such as charity or environmental initiatives. This study examines the effect, mechanism, and boundary conditions of multitasking as a situational factor on the subsequent prosocial behaviors of individuals. This study proposes the following hypotheses: 1: The thinking foucus reverses the effect of multitasking on prosocial behavior. When individuals focus on processes, multitasking reduces their engagement in prosocial behaviors. When individuals focus on outcomes, multitasking increases their engagement in prosocial behaviors. 2: Self-efficacy plays a mediating role in the interaction between multitasking and thinking focus on prosocial behavior. 3: Task feasibility moderates the interaction between multitasking and thinking focus on prosocial behavior intentions. When tasks are feasible, the aforementioned interaction effect remains valid. However, when tasks become infeasible, adverse outcomes directly reduce individuals' intentions to engage in prosocial behavior, resulting in the loss of the interactive effect of multitasking and thinking focus on prosocial behavior.
This research conducted a series of experiments to validate its hypotheses. Study 1a (preregistered) and 1b manipulated independent variables by using the situational imagination and recall method. Study 1c applied simulated real-world tasks to manipulate multitasking to verify the main interaction effect of multitasking and thinking focus on prosocial behavior participation. Study 2 measured the intermediate variable to validate the full model of the mechanism underlying the above interaction effect. Studies 3a and 3b (both preregistered) once again confirmed the mediating role of self-efficacy by using a process-by-moderation approach. Study 4 tested the boundary conditions of the theoretical model: the moderating effect of task feasibility (feasible vs. infeasible).
Research results indicate that when individuals focus on processes, multitasking (vs. single-tasking) reduces their willingness to participate in prosocial behavior (Studies 1a, 1b, 1c, 2, 3b, and 4). However, when individuals focus on outcomes, multitasking (vs. single-tasking) actually increases their willingness to engage in prosocial behavior (Studies 1a, 1b, 1c, 2, 3a, and 4). Additionally, this study verified the mediating role of self-efficacy in the above interaction effect through two methods: measurement of mediation (Study 2) and process-by-moderation approach (Studies 3a and 3b). That is, when individuals focus on processes, multitasking lowers their self-efficacy, subsequently reducing their engagement in prosocial behaviors. On the other hand, when individuals focus on outcomes, multitasking enhances their self-efficacy, subsequently increasing their engagement in prosocial behaviors. This study also indicates that task feasibility is an important boundary condition. When tasks are feasible, the effects proposed in this work are valid. However, when tasks become infeasible, adverse outcomes directly reduce individuals' intentions to engage in prosocial behavior, and the interactive effect of thinking focus and multitasking on prosocial behavior disappears.
This study makes several theoretical contributions. First, this study, for the first time, demonstrates that multitasking, as a situational factor, influences individuals' subsequent prosocial behaviors. This work thereby expands the domain of research on multitasking to its effect on a domain-unrelated decision for the first time. This study also investigated the role of multiple moderating variables, such as thinking focus and task feasibility, effectively integrating seemingly disparate and contradictory findings in the field of multitasking. Second, this study further enriches the research on the effect of unrelated dynamic situational factors on prosocial behavior in the era of mobile internet. Third, this study expands the existing research related to thinking focus. The findings of this project can offer valuable guidance for designing activities that promote prosocial behavior among the public while considering the dynamics of multitasking states.

Throughout human evolution, human beings have faced the challenge of establishing and maintaining social bonds in their gradually expanding groups. However, little is known about the mechanisms of maintaining social bonds in large social groups. Therefore, we must find effective ways to establish social intimacy simultaneously with several people and not just through one-on-one interactions. Synchronized movements are crucial for large-scale social groups to maintain social relations and are of great significance to group survival and social development. Despite being the core element of collective rituals and an integral part of social life, the influence and mechanisms of synchronized movement on social bonding remain unclear. Our study draws on the affective theory and Durkheim's viewpoint to propose that synchronized movement can promote social bonding, with collective effervescence as the intermediary mechanism and group size playing a regulatory role.
We conducted three experiments to test our hypotheses by using the silent disco paradigm to manipulate synchronized movements. In Experiment 1, 64 participants each were randomly assigned to a synchronized movement group and a no-movement group. Four participants in each group performed synchronized movement tasks as a team, after which the participants filled in data for the synchronization validity operation test, interpersonal familiarity test, social bonding scale, and collective effervescence scale. In Experiment 2, 128 senior high school students were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions (4-person small team × synchronized movement, 4-person small team × no movement, 16-person large team × synchronized movement, and 16-person large team × no movement). After completing the synchronized movement task test, the participants completed the synchronization validity operation test, interpersonal familiarity test, social bonding scale, and collective effervescence scale. Experiment 3 was based on the design of Experiment 2 but included adult participants to improve the external validity of the conclusions. The participants in Experiment 3 were selected from two newly established project departments in a construction enterprise's branch in Guizhou Province. Participants in each team were randomly selected from different departments of the two project departments to reduce the familiarity of participants within a team.
The key findings were as follows. (1) Synchronized movement can promote social bonding. Compared with the non-movement group, the synchronized movement group observed a stronger social bonding effect. In addition, collective effervescence played an intermediary role in the relationship between synchronized movement and social bonding. (2) The interaction between synchronized movement and group size had a significant impact on social bonding. Compared with the small group, the social bonding effect of synchronized movement on the large group was stronger. Collective effervescence in the large group was higher, which further produced stronger social bonding. (3) Group size had a moderating effect on the prediction of social bonding through collective effervescence. The results of Experiment 3 supported the conclusions of this study and enhanced the robustness of the results.
Our findings contribute to the literature in several ways. First, this study used the silent disco paradigm to manipulate synchronized movement, which proves for the first time that synchronized movement can promote social bonding even outside a music background. This also distinguishes the common influence of music and synchronized movement on social bonding as identified in previous studies. Second, this study enriches the existing literature on the collective effervescence effect of large-scale group synchronization and verifies the hive hypothesis and related viewpoints proposed by previous researchers. Third, this study confirms the collective effervescence effect of synchronized movements in social life and provides the emotional mechanism of the social bonding effect of synchronized movements.

In the current market, some common products add iconic elements and symbols of pharmaceuticals to product packaging. Drawing from schema-based information processing, the current research proposes that these iconic cues to pharmaceuticals have a “double-edged sword” effect: while consumers expect a product with pharmacological cues on its packaging to be more effective, such cues also trigger aversive emotions.
Study 1 (N = 200) examined the main effects of pharmacological cues on perceived effectiveness and aversive emotions. In a 2-cell between-subjects design, participants viewed the package of a facial mask without pharmacological cues (control condition) or a package of the same product with quasi-needle and red cross elements. The participants rated the product's perceived effectiveness and their aversive emotions. The results showed that when the product with (vs. without) pharmacological cues on the packaging was evaluated, consumers perceived the product to be more effective but also felt heightened aversive emotions. Studies 2A (N = 299) and 2B (N = 300) provided further evidence for the “double-edged sword” effect by using different products and manipulations of pharmacological cues. The results replicated the effect observed in Study 1 and showed that perceived effectiveness and aversive emotions have a parallel mediating effect on the influence of pharmacological cues on product attitude.
We further propose that purchase motivation moderates the strength of the two paths. When the purchase motivation is utilitarian, the mediating effect of the perceived effectiveness path surpasses that of aversive emotions, making consumers prefer products with (vs. without) iconic pharmaceutical cues on their packaging. When the purchase motivation is hedonic, the mediating effect of aversive emotion becomes stronger, weakening or reversing consumers' preference for products with (vs. without) iconic pharmaceutical cues.
To test the role of purchase motivation, in Study 3 (N = 150), the participants were assigned to one condition in a 3-cell between-subjects design (purchase motivation: utilitarian vs. hedonic vs. baseline). They were first primed with purchase motivation and then selected between the two masks used in Study 2B. The results showed that participants preferred the product with pharmacological cues on its packaging over the control product when they were primed with a utilitarian purchase motivation. However, their preference was reversed when the purchase motivation was hedonic.
Studies 4A (N = 500) and 4B (N = 400) tested the overall model. The results of these two studies consistently showed that the perceived effectiveness path was stronger under the utilitarian purchase motivation than the aversive emotion path. In contrast, the aversive emotion path was stronger under the hedonic purchase motivation than the perceived effectiveness path.
The findings imply that consumers' interpretation of iconic cues for specific product categories is largely formed by memory-stored product category schema and that the schema for pharmaceuticals is elaborate and not unidimensional. By showing that iconic pharmaceutical cues on packaging can induce aversive emotions, we partially address the lack of research on consumers' emotional reactions to packaging design. This study further identifies the role of purchase motivation in synthesizing the competing paths of perceived effectiveness and aversive emotions. In doing so, this study adds evidence to the dual-system literature and the goal-dependent nature of cue utilization and offers rich managerial implications.