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Bidirectional transfer between language and musical experience: Based on the categorical perception in Mandarin-speaking musicians YANG Mingchuan, LI Xianzhuo, LIANG Dandan 2025, 57 (9):  1499-1511.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1499 Abstract ( 2281 )   HTML ( 551 )   PDF (846KB) ( 2950 )   Peer Review Comments The relationship between music and language pitch processing experience has been extensively investigated in recent years. Based on the shared cognitive resources involved in language and music processing, researchers propose that the two domains share a common neurophysiological basis, enabling the transfer of experiences between them. The bidirectional transfer of domain-general acoustic experience in pitch processing has been widely validated. However, beyond domain-general resources, language processing also involves domain-specific phonemic resources, such as the categorical perception of lexical tones. Recent studies have suggested that experience with language and music can transfer to each other not only at the domain-general level but also at the domain-specific level, revealing the transfer of training effects. However, whether such transfer occurs in terms of the categorical perception of language tones remains unclear. To address this question, this study examines (1) whether musical experience influences phonemic tonal processing in Mandarin-speaking musicians and (2) whether their phonemic tonal categorical perception pattern affects fine-grained pitch processing in music. The present study employed a 2 (group: musicians vs. nonmusicians) × 2 (stimulus type: music vs. language) mixed design. Sixty participants were involved in the current study, including thirty native Mandarin-speaking musicians and thirty native Mandarin-speaking nonmusicians. Identification and discrimination tasks within the traditional categorical perception paradigm were used. A Mandarin T1-T2 tonal continuum, ranging from [i ˥] to [i ˧˥], and its musical counterpart were constructed as stimuli. In the identification task, participants judged whether a stimulus in the continuum was T1 or T2 in terms of language stimuli or whether its pitch direction was level or rising in terms of music stimuli. In the discrimination task, participants determined whether two stimuli separated by two steps were the same or different. The results revealed that (1) musicians presented a greater degree of categorical perception than nonmusicians did, as indicated by sharper and narrower category boundaries, enhanced between-category discrimination accuracy, and greater discrimination peak. This enhanced tonal categorical perception appeared to stem from their superior musical pitch processing ability. Additionally, musicians’ category boundary position was significantly closer to the T1 end in the tonal continuum than that of nonmusicians. (2) The identification curves of both musical and linguistic stimuli demonstrated a typical categorical perception pattern: identification rates differed significantly across category boundaries but were similar within categories. Similarly, the discrimination accuracy of between-category stimuli units was greater than that of within-category stimuli units for both the language and music stimuli, which could be interpreted as typical patterns of categorical perception. These findings suggest that musical experience can cross-domains to enhance phonemic tonal processing in Mandarin-speaking musicians, whereas tonal categorical perception patterns can, in turn, transfer to music perception. This study provides empirical support for the bidirectional transfer effect between language and music experience from the perspective of tonal categorical perception. The results also validated the “transfer of training effects” and the shared mechanisms perspective of language and music processing. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Processing strategies in focus: How highly-efficient and less-efficient learners navigate novel word learning in Chinese reading XIANG Ying, HE Fei, FENG Linlin, LONG Mengling, BAI Xuejun, LIANG Feifei 2025, 57 (9):  1512-1528.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1512 Abstract ( 2212 )   HTML ( 603 )   PDF (2196KB) ( 3250 )   Peer Review Comments Vocabulary acquisition is fundamental to reading development. Adults are exposed to approximately 1, 000 novel words each year, with more than 80% of these words acquired incidentally through natural reading. Numerous studies have identified significant differences in the efficiency of incidental vocabulary acquisition among adult readers, even among those at the peak of their reading ability. This raised the question: what accounts for such substantial individual variation? Some researchers have sought to elucidate these individual differences by examining the relationship between cognitive reading skills—such as phonological decoding, reading comprehension, and spelling ability—and the efficiency of vocabulary acquisition. However, these studies have not directly addressed how proficient vocabulary learners form high-quality representations of novel words during reading. Given that adult readers possess advanced reading skills and mature oculomotor control, we speculate that variations in vocabulary acquisition may stem from varied processing strategies employed by readers. In the present study, we investigated whether highly-efficient readers and less-efficient readers exhibit differences in their processing strategies during novel word learning. Sixteen single pseudo-characters were constructed as novel words, each embedded in six high-constraint contexts to facilitate the establishment of novel lexical representations. We manipulated the semantic transparency between the semantic radical of each novel word and its meaning conveyed by the contextual sentences. We recorded the eye movements of 116 undergraduates as they read sentences. Following the reading, they were instructed to complete an orthographic judgment test and a semantic relatedness test. Based on their performance on the orthographic judgment test, we grouped participants into highly-efficient learners (N = 58) and less-efficient learners (N = 58). The results showed that highly-efficient learners exhibited significantly longer fixation times on both novel words and the surrounding sentences relative to less-efficient learners. Furthermore, all learners adjusted their fixation times on novel words and sentential contexts with increased exposures. Specifically, the proportion of fixation times on novel words decreased while the proportion of fixation times on sentential context increased throughout the course of learning. This effect was more pronounced among highly-efficient than less-efficient learners. Additionally, only highly-efficient learners showed a robust semantic transparency effect when processing novel words during sentence reading. These findings indicate that highly-efficient readers utilized a sub-lexical semantic decoding strategy to facilitate the acquisition of novel words. In summary, our findings support the hypothesis that the efficiency of vocabulary acquisition during reading is highly associated with specific cognitive processing strategies utilized by the reader. Highly-efficient readers tend to invest greater cognitive effort in processing novel words and contextual sentences, adjusting the allocation of cognitive resources over the learning process. Furthermore, they are more likely to employ a sub-lexical semantic decoding strategy during the learning of novel words, highlighting the importance of these strategies in successful vocabulary learning. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Self-prioritization effect across varying intervals in sub-second duration perception LI Biqin, ZHANG Meixia, YANG Shaoyun, HUANG Pengfei, WANG Aijun, DANG Junhua 2025, 57 (9):  1529-1539.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1529 Abstract ( 1150 )   HTML ( 224 )   PDF (1188KB) ( 1351 )   Peer Review Comments Duration perception—the cognitive processing of temporal continuity—plays a crucial role in information processing and is essential for human survival and development. Prior research has demonstrated that time perception is inherently subjective, with self-related stimuli exerting particularly strong effects among the various factors influencing perceived duration. The present study investigates how self-related stimuli affect the perception of time within the sub-second range, specifically examining whether the self-processing advantage varies across different objective durations under one second. A growing body of literature has debated whether this advantage is uniform or segmented across temporal intervals within this brief window. To address this question, two experiments were conducted. Experiment 1 employed a self-duration comparison task to assess how self-related stimuli influence duration judgments. The results showed that at longer sub-second durations, the point of subjective equality was significantly extended in the self-name condition compared to the stranger-name condition. However, there was no significant difference in Weber’s ratio between the two conditions. Experiment 2 used a self-duration matching paradigm to further examine the effects of self-referential stimuli across varying sub-second intervals. The results revealed that both the drift rate (v) and non-decision time (t) were significantly increased in the self-referential condition. Furthermore, the decision threshold (a) and starting point bias (z) were significantly higher in the self-referential condition, but only at longer sub-second durations. Together, these findings demonstrate that self-related stimuli confer a stable advantage in duration perception, with distinct temporal dynamics depending on interval length. By applying the Drift Diffusion Model (DDM), the study offers new insights into the cognitive mechanisms underlying the self-prioritization effect and underscores the importance of considering specific temporal intervals in research on self-related information processing. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of time structure cues on prediction motion tasks in the interruption paradigm QIN Kuiyuan, LIU Yu, LIU Saifang, WANG Shuo, LIU Peng, YOU Xuqun, LI Yuan 2025, 57 (9):  1540-1552.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1540 Abstract ( 618 )   HTML ( 162 )   PDF (824KB) ( 675 )   Peer Review Comments The capacity to precisely estimate the arrival time of a moving object at a designated point plays a crucial role in numerous daily activities, including catching a thrown ball or avoiding obstacles during driving. This process, referred to as a prediction motion (PM) task, requires estimating the moment at which a moving stimulus reaches a specific target. The present research explores the influence of time structure on performance within the interruption paradigm of PM tasks, focusing on the effect of timing patterns on the accuracy of motion prediction. Experiment 1 employed a continuous test to explore the influence of time structure on performance in PM tasks. 25 university students participated in a task where a blue square moved from an initial location toward a target, became temporarily hidden at an interception point, and then reappeared at the designated target. Participants were instructed to determine whether the square arrived earlier or later than expected. Findings indicated that task accuracy significantly improved under a uniform time structure (T = 1.0) compared to variable structures (T ≠ 1.0). These results imply that a stable time structure provides a reliable reference, enhancing the precision of motion prediction. Experiment 2 was designed to separate the effect of visual speed on PM task performance by incorporating a flicker condition, wherein the moving stimulus became occluded before reaching the interception point. This setup eliminated access to visual speed cues, allowing for an examination of the predictive role of time structure alone. Results were consistent with those of Experiment 1, demonstrating that a stable time structure enhanced task accuracy even when visual speed data was unavailable. These outcomes indicate the significant influence of time structure on PM task performance, regardless of the availability of visual speed information. Experiment 3 extended the investigation into the stability of the time structure effect by implementing random interference conditions. In this setup, the moving stimulus flickered unpredictably between the starting point and the interception point, thereby interrupting the formation of a stable time structure. Despite these disruptions, findings revealed that performance remained superior under a consistent time structure (T = 1.0), demonstrating the stability of this effect. These results indicate that, even in the presence of distractions or irregularities, the regularity of time structure continues to play a critical role in enhancing predictive accuracy. In summary, the three experiments presented in this study consistently revealed that maintaining a uniform time structure enhances performance in prediction motion tasks. This improvement is robust across varying experimental conditions, demonstrating a notable level of stability. The results provide empirical evidence for the influence of cognitive processes in such tasks, indicating that individuals may rely on temporal rhythm to form expectations and improve accuracy. Further neuroimaging investigations may help uncover the neural processes involved, exploring how the brain incorporates temporal cues to anticipate motion and regulate behavior. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Automatic processing of variability in multiple facial expressions: Evidence from visual mismatch responses CHEN Zilong, JI Luyan 2025, 57 (9):  1553-1571.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1553 Abstract ( 1209 )   HTML ( 361 )   PDF (6556KB) ( 2300 )   Peer Review Comments The variability of multiple facial expressions can be extracted efficiently. However, whether processing emotional variability is automatic and whether it is impacted by types of emotions remain unresolved. To answer these questions, we employed a passive oddball paradigm and recorded event-related potentials while participants performed an attention-demanding task to detect changes in central fixation. A set of four faces was shown in the periphery, either displaying low (Experiment 1: SD = 12.08; Experiment 2: SD = 7) or high emotional variability (Experiment 1: SD = 36.12; Experiment 2: SD = 20.39), which was manipulated by changing the distance of emotional units among faces. In Experiment 1, the face set consisted of two angry faces and two happy faces, and the mean emotion was neutral (M = 50). In Experiment 2, all four faces were angry or happy, and the mean emotion was moderate anger (M = 25) or moderate happiness (M = 75). In Experiment 3, we additionally controlled for the range of emotional units in the set and used symmetrical distributions in both low- (M = 50, SD = 35.67) and high-variability conditions (M = 50, SD = 43.42). The two variability conditions had matched mean emotions and were shown with probabilities of 20% (deviant) and 80% (standard), respectively, in the sequence, or vice versa. When deviant stimuli are embedded within a series of standard stimuli, the appearance of the deviant disrupts the established statistics or regularity, leading to the observation of the vMMN (visual mismatch negativity). The vMMN is considered an index of automatic change detection, evoked by any alteration in the sequence. The results showed that in Experiment 1, faces with low emotional variability did not elicit vMMN, whereas those with high emotional variability elicited vMMN at both early (110−140 ms) and late (320−420 ms) time intervals. Further multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) using all EEG channels revealed that the brain could decode standard and deviant stimuli before 100 ms under conditions of both high and low emotional variability. In Experiment 2, when the mean emotion was angry, faces with low emotional variability elicited vMMN, whereas faces with high emotional variability elicited vMMP (visual mismatch positivity) in the time window of 320−420 ms. In contrast, when the mean emotion was happy, faces with both high and low emotional variability did not elicit significant vMMN in the 320−420 ms time window. Moreover, under all conditions of emotional variability, the standard and deviant stimuli could be successfully decoded at an early stage, but the decoding onset latency was significantly later in the low-variability condition than in the high-variability condition for both happy and angry emotions. In Experiment 3, faces with low emotional variability did not elicit vMMN, whereas those with high emotional variability elicited vMMP in the time window of 320−420 ms. MVPA revealed that the standard and deviant stimuli could be decoded during the early stage in both variability conditions, replicating the results of the previous experiments and excluding the potential confounding factors of range and distribution. Overall, we found that the variability of multiple unattended facial expressions can be perceived automatically. Moreover, there is an advantage in the automatic processing of relatively higher emotional variability, and this advantage is also influenced by the valence of emotions. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Sustainable regulation effects of implementation intention-based reappraisal on negative emotions: Longitudinal EEG evidence LI Yaqin, DAI Jiajia, GAO Wei, YUAN Jiajin 2025, 57 (9):  1572-1588.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1572 Abstract ( 1221 )   HTML ( 277 )   PDF (3921KB) ( 2555 )   Peer Review Comments Implementation Intention-based Reappraisal (IIR) is a novel automatic emotion regulation strategy that combines implementation intentions (if-then plans) with adaptive cognitive reappraisal to regulate negative emotions without increasing cognitive load. Moreover, this regulation effect can generalize from specified situations (if situations) to unspecified situations. However, previous studies have not focused on whether the generalization effect of IIR is sustainable. To address this gap, this study utilized EEG technology in combination with a picture-viewing task to longitudinally investigate the emotion regulation effects of IIR in the present and over the following week, using participants' self-reported valence, arousal, and late positive potential (LPP) as indicators. Specifically, 51 valid participants were randomly assigned to the IIR group (25 individuals) and the control group (26 individuals). The two groups performed a picture-viewing task and all participants' valence and arousal for picture stimuli were simultaneously recorded at both the IIR acquisition phase (Day 0) and the post-IIR acquisition phase (Day 1, Day 3, Day 5, and Day 7), and their EEG activities for picture stimuli were recorded on Day 0, Day 3, Day 7. After data reduction and preprocessing, behavioral analysis included 49 participants (24 in the IIR group, 25 in the control group), and EEG analysis involved 44 participants (22 in each group). Subjective self-reported results revealed that, compared to the control group, the IIR group sustainably decreased valence and arousal ratings for bloody pictures (specified situations) from Day 0 to Day 7. Furthermore, the diminishing effect of IIR on arousal also consistently appeared in unspecified situations (non-bloody pictures), suggesting that the generalization effect of IIR was somewhat persistent. The event-related potential (ERP) results showed that, compared to the control group, the IIR group had smaller amplitudes of centro-parietal LPP (in the time window of 400~1500 ms) and frontal LPP (in the time window of 400~1100 ms) on Day 0, Day 3, and Day 7, suggesting that the sustainable effect of IIR was stable on LPP indicators. Additionally, there was a significant positive correlation between centro-parietal LPP (in the time window of 400~2500 ms) amplitude and arousal. Together, these findings suggest that IIR exhibits sustainable regulation and generalization effects on negative emotions. In conclusion, IIR could sustainably regulate negative emotions and produce generalization effects as evidenced by both behavioral and ERP indicators. This study provides additional evidence supporting the stability and effectiveness of IIR in emotion regulation. In addition, these findings contribute to advancing the theory of automatic emotion regulation. Specifically, the present study not only supports the auto-motive model of nonconscious goal pursuit and the temporal processing model of controlled-automatic emotion regulation, but also extends these theories by demonstrating the stability and generalization of IIR's effects on emotion regulation. Moreover, this study has certain clinical implications for interventions targeting emotional disorders. For example, IIR may be an effective approach for treating co-morbid symptoms of anxiety and depressive disorders. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of emotional motivation on interpersonal emotion regulation strategy choice: Evidence from behavioral and hyperscanning HE Conglian, YUAN Jiajin 2025, 57 (9):  1589-1608.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1589 Abstract ( 2424 )   HTML ( 592 )   PDF (3404KB) ( 3561 )   Peer Review Comments Interpersonal emotion regulation refers to the process by which individuals help others control their emotions during social interaction. Social situations are complex and changeable, and it has been suggested that it is of great importance to choose between different strategies in different contexts. Based on the theory of emotion motivation, the current study explores the influence of motivational intensity and direction on interpersonal emotion regulation choice through one behavioral experiment. Then, based on the main findings of Experiment 1, the Experiment 2 further explored the neural mechanism underlying the effect. The present study used the Emotion Regulation Choice Task (ERCT) to explore the effect of emotional motivation, including the motivational intensity and direction, on interpersonal emotion regulation choice (Experiment 1), and to explore the neural mechanism underlying the regulator's strategy choice behavior using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning technique (Experiment 2). Experiment 1 used a within-subjects design with 2 (motivational direction: withdrawal-motivated emotion vs. approach-motivated emotion ) × 2 (motivational intensity: high vs. low) × 2 (task type: intrapersonal ERCT vs. interpersonal ERCT) format. A total of 40 participants were required to choose one of emotion regulation strategies including distraction, reappraisal or watch in the Emotion Regulation Choice Task (ERCT). In the final analysis, the data of 33 valid subjects (4 male and 29 female) were included. Based on the main findings of Experiment 1, Experiment 2 focused on the intensity of withdrawal-motivated emotion and used a 2 (intensity of withdrawal-motivated emotion: high vs. low) × 2 (task type: intrapersonal ERCT vs. interpersonal ERCT) format. 44 female friend dyads participated in Experiment 2. In experiment 1, we found that in withdrawal-motivated emotion, the regulatory strategies including cognitive reappraisal and distraction were chosen more often over watch in the intrapersonal ERCT and interpersonal ERCT. However, participants did not show preference for the three strategies under the condition of approach-motivated emotion. Moreover, the results showed that participants’ preference for reappraisal decreased with the increase of motivational intensity when regulating emotion of themselves. During the process of regulating another personal’s emotion, participants tended to choose cognitive reappraisal whereas showed no preference for different strategies in the condition of approach-motivated emotion. In Experiment 2, the behavioral results show that reappraisal was chosen more often over distraction in low-intensity withdrawal- motivated emotion, while no difference between these two strategies in high-intensity withdrawal-motivated emotion. The brain imaging results showed that, in the context of low-intensity withdrawal-motivated emotion, the activation of right prefrontal cortex (PFC) could positively predicted the regulator’s preference for regulatory strategies when regulating target’s emotion. And the higher activation in left temporoparietal junction (TPJ) was associated with less choice of reappraisal, while the significant activation in regulator’s right TPJ could prompt more choice of observation. Besides, the higher brain-to-brain synchrony between regulator and target in orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) was associated with regulator’s lower preference for reappraisal while higher level of interbrain synchrony in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and TPJ could predict more frequently choice of reappraisal. The results of this study provided insights into people’s choice of strategies when regulating others’ emotion in different motivational context and its neural mechanism. Our findings expand the current understanding of the influencing factors of interpersonal emotion regulation strategy choice. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The unconscious integration advantage of self-related information: Evidence from the subliminal same−different task paradigm WANG Jixian, LIU Minghui 2025, 57 (9):  1609-1621.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1609 Abstract ( 769 )   HTML ( 162 )   PDF (725KB) ( 799 )   Peer Review Comments When processing large volumes of information, only a limited subset can be consciously integrated into new representations, while other critical information must be unconsciously integrated to support survival and environmental adaptation. Previous research suggests that self-related information serves as a “binding glue,” thereby facilitating integration between stimuli with consistent advantages at the perceptual and semantic levels. However, whether or not self-related information can be integrated unconsciously remains unclear. Addressing this issue could deepen understanding of the mechanisms underlying self-related information integration. Accordingly, the current study utilized three experiments to systematically examine the unconscious integration advantage of self-related information, focusing on the integration window size and specific levels of representation at which this advantage occurred. This study adopted the recently developed subliminal same−different task as an effective tool for assessing unconscious integration performance, in conjunction with the self-perceptual matching task (SPMT) to investigate the unconscious integration mechanisms of self-related information. The subliminal same−different task simultaneously presented two primes and two targets, with the congruency effect between the prime−target relationship used to assess unconscious integration. Experiment 1 (N = 32) examined the congruency effect of neutral geometric shapes across three spatial integration window (SIW) sizes (1.53°, 4.02°, 6.51°). Experiment 2 (N = 32) introduced social information (self, friend, none) to explore its influence on the congruency effect, while controlling for stimulus familiarity using SPMT. Experiment 3 (N = 32) further examined SIW that showed self-related congruency advantages in Experiment 2, dissociating perceptual similarity to examine the effects of social information (self, friend) and integration levels (perceptual representation level, semantic representation level) on the congruency effect. Experiment 1 revealed that neutral shapes exhibited a congruency effect solely at the 1.53° SIW, indicating that low-level unconscious perceptual integration occurs only at this SIW. In Experiment 2, significant congruency effects were observed for all levels of social information at the 1.53° SIW, with no differences among them. At the 4.02° SIW, only self-related shapes presented a significant congruency effect, while no congruency effects were significant at the 6.51° SIW. These findings suggest that the involvement of social information modulates congruency effects over a considerably broad SIW (4.02°), while self-related information specifically exhibits unconscious integration advantages at the 4.02° SIW. Experiment 3 further demonstrated that this advantage effect did not depend on perceptual similarity but can occur at the perceptual and semantic representation levels. In summary, the current study was the first to identify an unconscious integration advantage for self-related information. These findings support the windows of integration (WOI) hypothesis, suggesting that the unconscious integration advantage of self-related information is constrained by the SIW size and can occur at the early perceptual and late conceptual stages of information processing. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of social reward and punishment on deception YUAN Bo, ZHAO Jingshi, QI Dan, ZHAO Tong, HU Jiaqi 2025, 57 (9):  1622-1637.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1622 Abstract ( 3658 )   HTML ( 1081 )   PDF (11991KB) ( 7999 )   Peer Review Comments Deception is a complex behavior involving the dissemination of misleading information or the intentional omission of relevant details, conveyed both verbally and nonverbally. While extensive research has explored strategies to mitigate deception, rewards and punishments have emerged as key deterrents. Prior studies have predominantly focused on tangible incentives, such as monetary or token-based rewards and punishments. However, given that deception frequently occurs in interpersonal contexts, social rewards and punishments— eliciting positive or negative emotional responses—may also influence deceptive behavior. Despite this, their precise impact remains unclear. To address this gap, the present study employed three experiments to examine the interplay between social rewards, social punishments, and deception, while also investigating the underlying mediating and moderating mechanisms. Experiment 1 engaged 30 participants in a signaling game (also known as the sender-receiver game) to assess whether social rewards and punishments influence deception in a manner similar to monetary incentives. Experiment 2, involving 60 participants, extended this investigation by incorporating an adapted reputation concern scale to explore reputation concern as a potential mediator. Experiment 3 examined the moderating role of social value orientation (SVO). Participants with different SVOs, identified using the SVO slider measure, were recruited to determine whether social value orientation moderates the effects of social rewards and punishments on deception. Findings from Experiment 1 demonstrated that social rewards and punishments, akin to monetary incentives, reduce deceptive behaviors, with social punishments being more effective than social rewards. Drift-diffusion modeling (DDM) analysis revealed that under conditions of social and monetary rewards and punishments, the drift rate (ν) was significantly lower compared to the condition without incentives, indicating that both forms of incentives promote evidence accumulation favoring non-deceptive behavior. Experiment 2 established reputation concern as a mediator in the relationship between social incentives and deception. Specifically, social incentives heightened reputation concerns, leading to reduced deception, whereas monetary incentives did not have this effect. Experiment 3 identified social value orientation as a moderator: Individuals with a pro-social orientation exhibited heightened reputation concerns in response to social incentives, thereby reducing deception, while this effect was absent among pro-self individuals. Overall, this study confirms that social rewards and punishments effectively reduce deceptive behavior. By elucidating the psychological mechanisms involved and broadening the empirical understanding of social incentives, these findings offer valuable insights into mitigating deception in interpersonal interactions. Future research could further explore the moderating effects of different social contexts or individual differences to more comprehensively understand the boundary conditions under which social rewards and punishments influence deceptive behavior. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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“We are big, you are small”: The association between in-group/out-group categorization and space size ZHANG Xiaobin, LI Xinlu, MA Ziyao, DAI Luyao, SHI Yonglin, ZUO Bin 2025, 57 (9):  1638-1648.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1638 Abstract ( 1615 )   HTML ( 297 )   PDF (1120KB) ( 1661 )   Peer Review Comments In everyday life, individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups, forming in-group and out-group identities that can lead to stereotypes, prejudice, and intergroup conflict. Understanding the mechanisms behind this categorization is crucial for mitigating its negative consequences. Recent research in embodied cognition reveals a bidirectional relationship between social categorization and embodied metaphors, showing that metaphorical manipulations can inhibit negative stereotypes and prejudice. While in-group/ out-group categorization is a key aspect of social categorization, its embodied basis has not yet been examined. This study investigates the association between in-group/out-group categorization and the embodied metaphor of spatial size through a series of three experiments. Experiment 1 (n = 55) employed a placement task to examine whether in-group/out-group categorization (own school vs. other school) was linked to spatial size. Experiments 2a (n = 36) and 2b (n = 34) assessed size perception when participants were primed with in-group versus out-group identities. Experiments 3a (n = 34), 3b (n = 40), and 3c (n = 39) utilized a reaction-time paradigm to further test this association across different bases of categorization (school membership, regional identity, and minimal group assignment). Results revealed that participants placed in-group targets in larger squares compared to out-group targets (Experiment 1). Participants primed with in-group identities perceived objects as larger than those primed with out-group identities (Experiment 2). Reaction times were faster when group identity was congruent with the spatial size metaphor, regardless of the basis of categorization (Experiment 3). These findings demonstrate a consistent association between in-group/out-group categorization and the embodied metaphor of spatial size, which is linked to positive in-group identification. This study advances our understanding of the cognitive processes underlying social categorization and provides practical insights for mitigating intergroup bias and conflict. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of interaction partners' Zhongyong and social mindfulness on cooperation YANG Can, LI Zixuan, BI Chongzeng 2025, 57 (9):  1649-1660.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1649 Abstract ( 1664 )   HTML ( 350 )   PDF (471KB) ( 1970 )   Peer Review Comments Based on interdependence theory, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of interaction partners' Zhongyong and social mindfulness on individuals' cooperation. Zhongyong, which emphasizes balance and harmony, may foster cooperative behaviors when recognized. The characteristics of Zhongyong align with the will and skills required for the occurrence of social mindfulness behavior. This alignment can provide a plausible explanation for the emergence of social mindfulness, potentially enhancing individuals' trust in the benevolence of their interaction partners and strengthening the positive role of social mindfulness in promoting cooperation. Three studies were conducted to test the hypotheses. Study 1 (N = 114) utilized a two-factor (interaction partners' Zhongyong and social mindfulness), two-level (high versus low), between-subjects design. Participants engaged in a public goods game after perceiving their virtual partners' Zhongyong and social mindfulness. Zhongyong was manipulated by presenting a virtual partner who endorsed either 80% or 20% Zhongyong statements on the Zhongyong Belief-Value Scale. Social mindfulness was manipulated by having the virtual partner choose either 80% of non-unique options or 20% in the social mindfulness paradigm. Participants' cooperative behavior was assessed through the amount of money they contributed, while their trust in their partners was inferred from their predictions regarding their partners' contributions. Study 2 (N = 199) and Study 3 (N = 135) replicated Study 1's procedure. In Study 2, a dictator game was implemented, with the dependent variable measured by the amount of money participants chose to allocate to their partners. Each participant was provided with 10 yuan to distribute. In Study 3, the cold-pressor test was used, and the dependent variable was indicated by the duration participants kept their hands submerged in cold water. The current study revealed a positive correlation between partners' Zhongyong and social mindfulness on participants' cooperative behavior. Despite the experimental setting posing challenges to individuals' predisposition for cooperation, the presence of Zhongyong and social mindfulness consistently positively impacted cooperation. Study 1 revealed that both Zhongyong and social mindfulness had a statistically significant effect on cooperation, with participants more likely to cooperate with high Zhongyong or social mindfulness. Moreover, partners' Zhongyong enhanced the positive impact of social mindfulness on cooperative behavior. Similar findings were observed regarding partners' Zhongyong and social mindfulness on participants' trust. While Studies 2 and 3 largely replicated these findings, Study 2 did not show a statistically significant main effect of social mindfulness on cooperation. The application of Zhongyong enhances individuals' trust and reciprocal motivations, prompting them to think and act in a Zhongyong manner through experimental tasks designed to stimulate recognition of partners characterized by Zhongyong, thus fostering a cooperative tendency. This differs from cooperating driven solely by personal adherence to Zhongyong. Moreover, Zhongyong offers a rational explanation for the occurrence of social mindfulness behaviors, reliably predicting cooperative behavior and amplifying the positive influence of prosocial tendencies on cooperation. In conclusion, this study suggests that people are more inclined to cooperate with partners exhibiting high levels of Zhongyong and social mindfulness, even in situations characterized by low mutual dependence, high conflict of interests, and high relative power—conditions typically discourage cooperation according to interdependence theory. The role of Zhongyong in fostering cooperation under such circumstances is particularly noteworthy. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Fertility dependence or fertility autonomy? The impact of husbands’ traditional gender role conceptions on wives’ fertility intentions CHEN Sijing, WANG Zhen, YANG Shasha, ZHENG Peng, HE Quan 2025, 57 (9):  1661-1676.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1661 Abstract ( 3346 )   HTML ( 470 )   PDF (905KB) ( 4787 )   Peer Review Comments Existing literature has extensively examined the relationship between gender role conceptions and fertility intentions, reaching a relatively stable conclusion that more traditional gender role conceptions are associated with stronger fertility intentions. A notable limitation in this body of research, however, is its predominant focus on individuals’ own gender role conceptions, while largely neglecting the influence of their spouses’ beliefs and attitudes. Overlooking this relational aspect may lead to incomplete conclusions. Diverging from previous studies, this paper investigates the relationship between spouses’ gender role conceptions and individuals’ fertility intentions, with particular emphasis on the influence of husbands’ gender role conceptions on wives’ fertility intentions, given that women are primarily engaged in fertility behaviors. The central question of this study is whether fertility dependency exists among married women in China. Specifically, it examines whether husbands’ gender role conceptions exert a stronger influence on their wives’ fertility intentions than the wives’ own conceptions. If this is the case, the study further explores the factors contributing to this dependency and seeks to provide a theoretical explanation for these dynamics. This study utilized data from the 2014 China Family Panel Studies (CFPS). After data cleaning, a total of 7, 089 valid participants remained. Core variables were constructed as follows: the outcome variable, representing the wife’s fertility intention, was measured by the desired family size (an integer between 0 and 10). The primary predictor variable, representing the couple’s gender role conceptions, was assessed through four items, such as “Men are career-oriented, and women are family-oriented.” The mean score of these four items served as an indicator of gender role conceptions, with higher scores reflecting more traditional perspectives. Results indicate that fertility dependency is significant, and this finding remains consistent regardless of the different measurement approaches and regression models we employed. Specifically, husbands’ gender role conceptions exert a stronger influence on their wives’ fertility intentions than the wives’ own conceptions; notably, this effect does not occur in the opposite direction. Using data from the CFPS 2022 (N = 555), we further investigated the relationship between husbands’ and wives’ gender role conceptions in 2014 and wives’ near-term fertility plan in 2022. The findings indicate that fertility dependency persists; specifically, husbands’ gender role conceptions in 2014 exhibit a stronger correlation with their wives’ fertility plan in 2022 than the wives’ own gender role conceptions. Furthermore, we examined fertility dependency across different distributions of household decision-making power. The results indicate that fertility dependency is more pronounced among married women whose husbands hold greater authority in five key domains: household expenditures, savings and investments, real estate purchases, child discipline, and major acquisitions. In contrast, when wives have greater decision-making power, fertility dependency diminishes or shifts toward fertility autonomy, highlighting the critical role of household decision-making power in shaping fertility outcomes. Moreover, fertility dependency is not uniformly distributed across time and space. It is particularly evident among women from earlier generations, those with lower educational attainment, rural hukou holders, and residents of central and western China. By contrast, women from later generations, with higher education, non-rural hukou, and living in eastern China exhibit weaker fertility dependency or even fertility autonomy. The findings of this study carry significant theoretical and practical implications. First, the results indicate that a substantial number of married women in China are influenced by their husbands’ gender role conceptions in fertility decision-making. Neglecting the role of husbands’ beliefs may lead to an incomplete understanding of wives’ fertility decisions. Second, this study offers a psychological perspective on gender equality based on gender role conceptions. It suggests that gender inequality is not only reflected in the unequal distribution of economic resources but also in the asymmetric psychological dependence between spouses. Enhancing women’s decision-making power in household affairs can mitigate fertility dependency and promote fertility autonomy. This, in turn, may contribute to broader social progress and support the development of a more harmonious and sustainable society. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Analysis of learning effect in interactive problem-solving test: Extension and application of process data measurement model LU Xiangyu, CHEN Ping 2025, 57 (9):  1677-1688.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.1677 Abstract ( 786 )   HTML ( 165 )   PDF (1491KB) ( 856 )   Peer Review Comments In the past decade, computer-based interactive problem-solving tests have become increasingly popular in large-scale assessments. Such tests require examinees to interact with a computer, explore virtual scenarios, and solve practical problems, thus making it possible to record the sequences of actions performed by examinees (i.e., process data). Process data contain rich information about the problem-solving process and can help to gain a deeper understanding of examinees’ problem-solving strategies. Methods for analyzing such process data are still under development. For example, Han et al. (2021) proposed a sequential response model (SRM) that combines comprehensive information from the response process to infer problem-solving ability. Fu et al. (2023) replaced the multinomial logistic modeling in SRM with binary logistic modeling and proposed 1P-ASM with relatively lower model complexity. However, existing studies have ignored the fact that students gradually gather information while completing problem-solving tasks (i.e., learning effect). The probability that an examinee performs the correct behavior is affected by their understanding of the problem situation. If the model does not take this into account, it may result in biased estimate of examinee’s problem-solving ability. To address this issue, this paper puts forward a new model (denoted as 1P-ASM-R*), which extends 1P-ASM to incorporate this learning effect to obtain more accurate ability estimates. An empirical study was performed to compare 1P-ASM and 1P-ASM-R* in a real-world interactive assessment item (i.e., “Tickets”) in the PISA 2012. The results showed that: (1) the extended model introducing learning effect fitted the empirical data better than the original model; (2) as the examinees delve deeper into the problem, the impact of learning effect on the accuracy of behavioral choices in problem-solving tasks decreased, reflecting a trend of diminishing marginal effect; and (3) introducing learning effect into the model does not affect its ability to capture the characteristics of the problem-solving tasks. A simulation study was further conducted to explore the psychometric performance of the proposed model in different test scenarios. Three factors were manipulated, they are sample size (200 and 1000), average problem state transition sequence length (short and long), and strength of learning effect (0, 0.1, and 0.3). The problem-solving task structure in the empirical study was used here and 1P-ASM-R* was used to generate the action sequences of the examinees. The results indicated that: (1) when there was no learning effect, 1P-ASM-R* could provide similar fitting performance to the original model and correctly estimate the learning effect parameter as 0. However, when there was a learning effect, 1P-ASM-R* fits the data better, and this advantage became more pronounced as the strength of the learning effect increased; (2) sequence length is one of the factors affecting the parameter recovery of 1P-ASM-R*. The longer the sequence length, the more information the data contains and the higher the parameter estimation accuracy. In summary, our proposed 1P-ASM-R* model incorporates the learning effect and demonstrates a strong ability to accurately analyze examinees’ problem-solving abilities. The combination of simulation and empirical findings highlights the effectiveness of the model in a variety of contexts. Notably, when the task environment lacks a learning effect, the 1P-ASM-R* model exhibits comparable performance to the original 1P-ASM model. This finding underscores the excellent stability and adaptability of the model, indicating that it can function reliably under different conditions. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics