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The influence of positive emotion with varying intensities of approach motivation on false memory and its neural mechanisms: A study based on semantic-related false memory ZHANG Huan, QIN Xiquan, LIU Yu, LIN Lin, WU Jie 2025, 57 (3):  349-362.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0349 Abstract ( 4034 )   HTML ( 899 )   PDF (6269KB) ( 6042 )   Peer Review Comments Emotions can influence false memories, with previous studies showing that positive emotions particularly affect the formation of false memories related to semantic relevance. Most researchers agree that false memories are more likely under positive emotions. However, existing studies have focused mainly on valence and arousal dimensions, often neglecting the role of intrinsic motivation independent of arousal and valence. Consequently, research on how motivation influences false memory from an emotional perspective has been limited. This study employed the expression-posture method to induce different levels of approach motivation in positive emotions. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) measured brain activity as participants were randomly exposed to high, medium, and low motivation conditions to avoid sequential effects. The dependent variables were: (1) the false memory rate of critical lures, calculated as the ratio of recalled critical lures to the total number; and (2) the relative variation in oxyhemoglobin (HbO) levels during the learning phase across different experimental conditions. The goal was to explore changes in oxygenated hemoglobin in the cerebral cortex and their effect on false memory related to semantic relevance, as participants encountered DRM vocabulary under different levels of positive emotion motivation. Results showed that participants exhibited false memories under positive emotional motivation, with the highest false memory rate occurring in the high motivation condition. The false memory rate was significantly higher in the high and medium motivation conditions compared to the low motivation condition. Brain imaging revealed significant activation in the left frontal and temporal lobes across all conditions, with the greatest activation observed under high motivation. Correlation analysis showed that activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus and temporal lobe was positively correlated with false memory rates under high motivation. In contrast, under low motivation, activation in the left inferior temporal gyrus was negatively correlated with false memory. Linear regression further highlighted the critical role of this region in generating false memories. In summary, these findings suggest that positive emotions with varying levels of approach motivation differently influence false memory. The results offer valuable insights into the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying how positive emotions with different levels of motivation affect false memory, highlighting the importance of semantic relevance. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The positive effect of retrieval difficulty on the retrieval practice effect for difficult materials: Evidence from behavior and fNIRS ZHANG Lijuan, JIANG Yanxue, MA Jianping, CUI Boyang, ZHANG Jinkun 2025, 57 (3):  363-379.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0363 Abstract ( 2101 )   HTML ( 418 )   PDF (1443KB) ( 2094 )   Peer Review Comments The Retrieval Practice Effect (RPE) refers to the phenomenon whereby retrieving learned content can enhance learning and memory levels more effectively than studying repeatedly within the same amount of time. The RPE reveals the critical role of retrieval in facilitating memory retention (direct effect) and emphasizes its positive influence on metacognitive monitoring accuracy, which fosters subsequent learning and improves overall learning performance (indirect effect). Recent studies have indicated that both material difficulty and retrieval difficulty significantly influence the RPE. In this study, we investigated the impact of these factors on the direct and indirect effects of retrieval practice by manipulating the difficulty of word pairs and the level of retrieval support. Moreover, by incorporating behavioral experiments and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) technology, we further investigate the cognitive neuroscientific mechanisms underlying the effects of material difficulty and retrieval difficulty on the RPE. Experiment 1was a behavioral study in which a 2 (word pair difficulty: easy, difficult) × 2 (retrieval support: yes, no) mixed design was used to investigate the direct effects of retrieval practice on delayed testing (final test administered 2 days later). In experiment 2, an additional factor of restudy (after retrieval) was introduced and a 2 (retrieval support: yes, no) × 2 (word pair difficulty: easy, difficult) × 2 (restudy: yes, no) three-factor mixed design was used. This experiment was designed to further differentiated the impacts of word pair difficulty and retrieval support on both the direct and indirect effects of retrieval practice by combining behavioral measures with fNIRS technology. The results showed a consistent direct effect in both experiments: the memory performance for easy word pairs was significantly higher than that for difficult word pairs, and the group without retrieval support performed significantly better on the delayed test than the group with retrieval support. The fNIRS brain imaging results revealed a significantly higher activation level in the superior temporal gyrus region (associated with retrieval difficulty) in the no-retrieval support condition than in the retrieval support condition. Moreover, learners exhibited more extensive activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (associated with cognitive load) during the retrieval of difficult word pairs than during the retrieval of easy word pairs. Regarding indirect effects, the group without retrieval support exhibited significantly superior memory performance compared with the group with retrieval support. Additionally, memory performance was significantly greater for easy word pairs than for difficult word pairs. However, a lack of retrieval support facilitated the relearning effect for difficult word pairs, leading to significant memory improvement during delayed testing. The fNIRS brain imaging results showed that, compared with the group with retrieval support, the group without retrieval support exhibited stronger activation of the prefrontal cortex region (associated with processing depth) during the restudy phase. Moreover, the activation of prefrontal cortex-related brain areas was reduced when easy word pairs were restudied after retrieval compared with that in initial learning phase. However, a significant enhancement in activation was observed during the restudying of difficult word pairs by the no-retrieval support group (compared with the initial learning phase). The present study demonstrates that reducing retrieval support increases the difficulty of retrieval and promotes deeper processing during reencoding, which facilitates memory retention and enhances both direct and indirect effects of retrieval practice. These results provide empirical support for the retrieval effort hypothesis. Additionally, difficult materials have a weaker RPE than easy materials, but reducing retrieval support increases the retrieval difficulty and facilitating deeper processing during reencoding for difficult materials, effectively fostering the indirect effects of retrieval practice. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the positive impact of retrieval-based relearning for difficult materials. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Sequential feedback influences the psychological and event-related potentials mechanism of sense of agency XIE XiaoLing, PAN WenYi, ZHANG ChunChun, LIN JingYuan, LI Hong 2025, 57 (3):  380-397.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0380 Abstract ( 1639 )   HTML ( 254 )   PDF (6609KB) ( 3528 )   Peer Review Comments This study aimed to investigate the impact of multiple sequential feedback on sense of agency (SoA) and its underlying cognitive mechanisms, bridging a gap in previous research that primarily focused on the influence of outcome feedback valences on SoA. Employing a simple gambling task (door task), the study manipulated the number of successive feedbacks and utilized explicit measure of SoA. A within-subject design of 2 (outcome valence: gain, loss) × 8 (sequential feedback times: 1~8) was implemented. The study included forty college students (38 in the final analysis, with 20 females, aged 20.79 ± 1.70), who voluntarily participated. During the experiment, participants guessed which of two doors contained a reward and selected the corresponding door by pressing a button. Feedback resulted in a gain of 10 for a correct guess and a loss of 10 for an incorrect one, with outcome feedback predetermined before the experiment, leading to one to eight different gain or loss sequences. Subsequently, participants rated their SoA after receiving feedback. Event-related potential responses to outcome feedback, focusing on stimulus-preceding negativity (SPN) in the outcome anticipation phase, and feedback-related negativity (FRN) and feedback-P3 (fb-P3) in the outcome processing phase, were recorded and analyzed. Behavioral results revealed a significantly lower SoA under loss conditions compared to gain conditions, aligning with previous findings. Sequential feedback demonstrated a cumulative effect on SoA, with continuous changes observed based on feedback results. Under gain conditions, the cumulative effect followed a quadratic polynomial model, with SoA increasing to a "change" point (the seventh gain feedback) and then stabilizing. Conversely, under loss conditions, SoA gradually diminished with continuous loss feedback, following a unitary linear model. Combining ERP and behavioral results, it was found that SoA under continuous loss was related to the amplitude of right frontal lobe SPN before outcome feedback. FRN amplitude was sensitive to the continuity of loss, being more negative under continuous loss compared to discontinuous loss and associated with a higher repetition rate of subsequent behavior selection. Moreover, continuous losses induced a significantly greater Fb-P3 amplitude compared to continuous gains. In conclusion, this study provides empirical evidence supporting the dynamic account of SoA, revealing differentiated developmental mechanisms in both behavior and ERPs under sequential gain and loss conditions. These findings shed light on how sequential feedback influences SoA and the characteristics of processing time. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The dependence of classic and dual common consequence effects on the choice-set outcome range: From the perspective of probability weights LI Chunhao, LIU Rongyuan, LIU Yuanhao 2025, 57 (3):  398-414.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0398 Abstract ( 739 )   HTML ( 135 )   PDF (616KB) ( 642 )   Peer Review Comments Expected utility theory (EUT) was considered capable of aptly explaining individual choice behavior. However, a plethora of research has uncovered phenomena that violate EUT, such as the classic common consequence effect (CCCE) and the dual common consequence effect (DCCE), especially when the choice-set outcome range (COR) is broad. Subsequent scholars have examined the stability of behaviors that violate EUT by conducting empirical studies within a narrow COR. They discovered that CCCE no longer appeared, thereby suggesting that individuals’ behaviors conform to EUT under these conditions. Nevertheless, the absence of CCCE does not imply the nonexistence of DCCE. Studies on CCCE with a narrow COR typically employ a specific probability level without exploring whether the effect remains absent under other probability levels. Given these considerations, this study sequentially addresses three questions: first, whether DCCE exists within a narrow COR and how changes in COR influence this effect; second, whether the impact of COR on CCCE is also stably present at other probability levels; and third, what the underlying mechanisms are if changes in COR influence both types of common consequence effects. This study conducted two experiments to address the aforementioned questions. In Experiment 1, a choice task was executed to explore whether the COR affects both types of common consequence effects. This experiment employed a between-subjects design with two experimental groups: the broad-range group and the narrow-range group. A total of 160 participants were recruited for the experiment and were randomly and equally distributed into the two groups. Given that 10 participants failed the attention check, the effective sample sizes were 74 and 76 for the two groups, respectively. The experimental materials for both groups were consistent in terms of probability values. Meanwhile, the outcome values for the broad-range group were 100 times those of the narrow-range group. The Conlisk-z test method was utilized to analyze the occurrence of CCCE and DCCE. Furthermore, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was employed to examine the impact of COR on these effects. In Experiment 2, a non-parametric approach was used to explore the mechanisms by which the COR influences CCCE and DCCE from the perspective of probability weights. The experiment adopted a within-subject design, which was conducted in two phases: broad- and narrow-range phases. A total of 55 participants were invited to partake in the experiment. The t-test was utilized to analyze the influences of COR on probability weights. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that DCCE not only exists within a narrow COR but also occurs more readily than a broad COR. Compared with a broad COR, CCCE significantly reduced, but persists in a narrow COR. The results of Experiment 2 demonstrate that the outcome range of choice sets influences both types of common consequence effects by altering individuals’ risk perception of objective probabilities (i.e., probability weights). The impact of COR on probability weights manifests such that a narrower COR entails a higher probability weight assigned by decision-makers to favorable outcomes. Our research contributes to the literature in four ways. First, this study addresses the lack of generality in the experimental materials of existing related research by employing various levels of probabilities to investigate CCCE empirically. Second, the identification of DCCE within narrow COR challenges the viability of EUT in such contexts. Third, this research clarifies the mechanisms through which COR influences CCCE and DCCE from the perspective of probability weights. Hence, this work not only offers a new perspective for explaining the relationship between decision-making behaviors and COR but also provides empirical evidence for the development of non-EUT theories, such as cumulative prospect theory (CPT). Last, the improvements made to the existing trade-off method not only offer an operable experimental scheme for verifying the dependency relationship between probability weights and COR but also pave the way for the application of COR-dependent CPT. Beyond the theoretical contributions outlined above, our study provides practical insights for blind box sales. For instance, reducing the packaging of products is beneficial for increasing sales. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The topological structure of adolescents’ internet adaptation: A longitudinal tracking study DONG Wanghao, ZHANG Jie, MENG Sujie, JIA Min, WANG Weijun 2025, 57 (3):  415-427.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0415 Abstract ( 3248 )   HTML ( 525 )   PDF (1645KB) ( 4034 )   Peer Review Comments As the saying goes, “Survival of the fittest”. Nowadays, the Internet has become a critical channel for information acquisition, social interaction, and educational learning. Adolescents’ internet adaptation capabilities must be continuously improved to adapt to this rapidly developing information age. Internet adaptation is inherently a “multidimensional system” encompassing various stages and dimensions. However, there remains a gap in the research exploring the internal topological characteristics and functional mechanisms of internet adaptation. Consequently, this study aims to employ network analysis techniques to elucidate the core characteristics, internal structure, dynamic evolution, and relationships with external variables of adolescents’ internet adaptation through network analysis. This approach will offer a comprehensive framework for understanding adolescents’ successful adaptation in the digital age and provide scientific insights for preventing and intervening in adolescent internet addiction. This study collected all data through paper-and-pencil questionnaires. At Time 1, valid data were obtained from 5783 participants (Males for 37.4%, Mage = 17.20 years, SD = 2.62). Five months later, data from 1235 of these participants were tracked (Males for 38%, Mage = 14.98 years, SD = 1.66). Based on the research objectives, we conducted cross-sectional network analysis, network comparison, and cross-lagged network analysis. All cross-sectional and cross-lagged network analyses were primarily conducted using R (V.4.3.2). Network visualizations were created with the qgraph package (version 1.9.5). The accuracy of edge estimates was assessed by performing 1000 bootstrap iterations to construct 95% non-parametric bootstrap confidence intervals for each edge. In the cross-sectional network of internet adaptation, “Internet curiosity” is the node with the highest strength (1.18). Network comparison results indicate no significant difference in the overall strength between the T1 (3.52) and the T2 network (3.79) (p = 0.120), although the network invariance test result is significant (p < 0.001). The cross-lagged network analysis shows that “Internet self-efficacy” has the strongest out-expected influence (0.60), “Internet learning ability” and “Internet information searching” has the strongest in-expected influence (0.31 & 0.30). Additionally, the cross-lagged network analysis of internet adaptation and internet addiction reveals that “Internet information protection capability” exhibits the strongest outgoing predictive ability. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Adolescent internet adaptation is characterized by its dynamic and staged nature; (2) Adolescents’ internet curiosity plays a multifaceted role in their internet adaptation process: insufficient curiosity can lead to low internet self-efficacy, while excessive curiosity can result in poor internet self-control; (3) Internet self-efficacy has the most significant impact on the overall development of internet adaptation, serving as the “primary driving force”. (4) Internet learning ability and internet information search receive the most internal influence, constituting the main “landing point” of adolescents’ internet adaptation. (5) Internet information protection is the strongest predictor of cross-cluster outgrowth of internet addiction networks, acting as a “guardian” of adolescents’ internet adaptation. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The container metaphor and differential mode of association of ethnic identity among Yugur middle school students DENG Bilin, WANG Ting, ZHANG Jijia, LIU Xiancui, LIU Sha 2025, 57 (3):  428-446.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0428 Abstract ( 1136 )   HTML ( 119 )   PDF (843KB) ( 1579 )   Peer Review Comments The community of the Chinese nation represents a high-level shared group constructed by various ethnicities on the foundation of ethnic identity, which itself exhibits a hierarchical structure. The ethnic identity of marginal ethnic groups arises through complex processes of change, leading to varying levels of consciousness regarding the community of the Chinese nation. The Yugur people, associated with Mongolian and Uyghur origins but significantly influenced by Tibetan and Han cultures, offer a unique perspective due to their marginal characteristics and spatially intertwined multi-ethnic living patterns. These characteristics make the Yugur population a valuable subject for investigating the formation and development of the community for the Chinese nation. This study examined the container metaphor, the differential mode of association, and the factors influencing the ethnic identity of Yugur middle school students from marginal ethnic groups. The findings aim to provide a theoretical basis for strategies to strengthen awareness of the Chinese nation’s community. Three experiments were conducted to investigate the ethnic identity of Yugur middle school students. In Experiment 1, the spatial Stroop paradigm was applied to examine the container metaphor and the differential mode of association in their ethnic identity, involving 117 participants (Mage = 15.32 ± 1.64 years). Upon confirming the existence of these phenomena, Mongolian, Tibetan, Han, Uyghur, and Hui ethnic groups were selected as experimental materials to explore the influences of inter-ethnic contact, ethnic origin relationships, language, and religion on the differential mode of association for ethnic identity. Experiment 2 (N = 146, Mage = 15.04 ± 1.76 years) employed a graphic classification task to investigate ethnic cognition, while Experiment 3 (N = 188, Mage = 14.79 ± 1.78 years) utilized a street distance test to examine ethnic emotion. The results of Experiment 1 demonstrated that Yugur middle school students responded significantly faster to the names of their own ethnic group, other local ethnic groups, and other ethnic groups in China when presented inside a circle compared to outside it. Conversely, responses to the names of foreign ethnic groups were significantly slower when presented inside the circle than outside. The reaction times from fastest to slowest were observed for their own ethnic group, other local ethnic groups, other ethnic groups in China, and foreign ethnic groups. These findings indicated that Yugur middle school students have constructed a high-level common ingroup, the “community for the Chinese nation,” and an internal differential mode of association in ethnic identity encompassing their own ethnic group, other local ethnic groups, and other ethnic groups in China. Experiment 2 revealed that students tended to use the same graphical representation for Yugur, Tibetan, Han, and Mongolian ethnic groups, suggesting that inter-ethnic contact and religious belief were primary influencing factors at the cognitive level of ethnic identity. Ethnic origin played a moderate role, while minority language exerted minimal influence. Experiment 3 indicated that students were more likely to assign houses closer to their own home to Mongolian and Tibetan groups, highlighting that religious belief and inter-ethnic contact were key factors influencing the emotional and behavioral levels of ethnic identity, with ethnic origin playing a secondary role and minority language having a minor impact. In summary, Yugur middle school students have formed a high-level common ingroup, the “community for the Chinese nation,” and an internal differential mode of association in their ethnic identity. Religious belief and inter-ethnic contact emerged as the most significant factors shaping this differential mode of association, particularly among marginalized ethnic groups. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of the growth mindset of socioeconomic status on academic and career engagement among college students REN Xiaoyun, DUAN Jinyun, ZHANG Qian 2025, 57 (3):  447-462.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0447 Abstract ( 3799 )   HTML ( 666 )   PDF (821KB) ( 4259 )   Peer Review Comments The growth mindset of socioeconomic status (SES growth mindset) refers to the belief that social standing is malleable and can be developed through one’s efforts and practices. Individuals with a strong SES growth mindset tend to have a positive cognition of social class mobility, believing that they have the potential to reach a higher status. In line with implicit theory, the SES growth mindset has strong motivational functions, which may encourage individuals to acquire the resources necessary for improving their social standing. Given that higher education is pivotal for upward mobility, and college students are at a crucial stage in building their status, this research focused on how SES growth mindset influences their academic and career engagement. Drawing on resource scarcity theory, this research further incorporated how SES growth mindset interacts with family subjective SES to determine whether its impact varies among individuals with different SES backgrounds. To address these questions, we conducted two studies. Study 1 used a time-lagged method to investigate the relationships between SES growth mindset and the two types of engagement, as well as the moderating role of family subjective SES. Additionally, Study 1 examined whether time orientation mediated the moderation effect of family subjective SES. Study 2 aimed to test the causal effect of SES growth mindset on academic and career engagement with two scenario-based experiments. In Study 2a, we manipulated the SES growth mindset of participants and then tested their intentions to engage in academic and career tasks. In Study 2b, we further investigated how family subjective SES influences these relationships via time orientation. The results revealed that SES growth mindset has a positive impact on academic and career engagement. The relationship between SES growth mindset and academic engagement was stronger for individuals with a low family subjective SES, while the relationship between SES growth mindset and career engagement was stronger for individuals with high family subjective SES. Moreover, time orientation mediated the moderated effects of family subjective SES. Family subjective SES was positively associated with time orientation. Individuals with low family subjective SES held a near-future time orientation, which enhanced the effect of SES growth mindset on their academic engagement. By contrast, individuals with high family subjective SES have a far-future time orientation, causing the SES growth mindset to have a larger impact on their career engagement. In summary, this research highlights the importance of SES growth mindset in driving individuals’ SES−promoted behaviors, which benefit their academic and career development. Such advantages are also influences by the family subjective SES and time orientation of individuals. Overall, the findings validate and expand the implications of implicit theory and resource scarcity theory, contributing to the understanding of class mobility from the perspective of personal initiative. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Changing trends of Chinese people's generalized trust: A dynamic analysis of the age-period-cohort effect GAO Xuede, MA Haoyun 2025, 57 (3):  463-478.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0463 Abstract ( 2089 )   HTML ( 205 )   PDF (815KB) ( 1940 )   Peer Review Comments Since the start of the Chinese Revolution in the early 20th century and the establishment of the People's Republic of China, China has undergone significant transformations in political, economic, social, and cultural aspects. These changes have significantly altered the values and social mentality of the Chinese people. They have disrupted traditional social bonds and trust networks, resulting in altered public trust. An analysis of the historical changes in general trust among the Chinese population is crucial for enhancing social governance and establishing a solid foundation for Chinese-style modernization. To accurately describe these trends, this study uses large-scale representative sample data (N = 95, 283) from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) conducted between 2003 and 2021 by Renmin University of China. Employing a stratified age-period-cohort (HAPC) model, it analyzes the changing trends of general trust among Chinese individuals across three dimensions: age, period, and birth cohort, while also offering preliminary explanations for group differences. The study leads to six main conclusions: (1) General trust follows a "U-shaped" pattern with age, where middle-aged individuals have lower trust levels compared to both younger and older people. (2) Period effects exhibit an upward trend, marked by two significant points: a quick decline in general trust from 2003 to 2005, a stable phase from 2010 to 2015, and a notable rise in 2017. (3) The generational effect on general trust shows an inverted “U-shaped” trend. Trust gradually increases among the 1925 cohort, rises to positive levels by the 1940 cohort, stabilizes between the 1945 and 1970 generations, and sharply declines to the lowest point with the 1990 cohort. (4) Rural residents generally demonstrate higher levels of trust across most age groups, periods, and generations than urban residents, although this gap is narrowing over time. (5) Individuals with higher education levels exhibit greater general trust and more variability across different age groups. (6) Strong kinship ties and large income disparities negatively affect changes in general trust. In contrast, factors such as marketization, population mobility, the number of social organizations, average years of education, and the government trust index positively influence changes in trust. By utilizing a consistent dataset over a lengthy period, this study addresses inaccuracies in previous research caused by insufficient data or inconsistent measurements. It provides a view of trust trends among the Chinese population over nearly two decades. By analyzing the effects of generation and age on general trust, this research enhances the scientific rigor of its conclusions. It integrates the dynamics of changing general trust with the broader context of social transformation and historical development. This analysis reveals the changes in trust among different generations of Chinese people through various stages of societal development over the past century. Additionally, the introduction of the HAPC model improves upon the traditional APC model, allowing for a more precise separation of the independent effects of age, period, and cohort. Robustness checks using IE and CGLM methods further confirm the reliability of the findings. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Dynamic antecedents of changes in abusive supervision: A latent change score model WANG Yongyue, WANG Jing, LIU Jun, JIN Yanghua 2025, 57 (3):  479-494.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0479 Abstract ( 1511 )   HTML ( 189 )   PDF (490KB) ( 1700 )   Peer Review Comments The antecedents of abusive supervision have received heightened attention from researchers and practitioners in recent years. However, there are two unresolved issues related to current research on the antecedents of abusive supervision. First, traditional research considers abusive supervision to be a static leadership behavior, ignoring the dynamic nature of abusive supervision. Although recent studies have embraced a dynamic perspective to focus on the changes in abusive supervision at different time points during the interaction between leaders and subordinates, these studies are still exploring the antecedents of high levels of abusive supervision at specific points in time. Existing theories and findings on abusive supervision (variable level → abusive supervision level) cannot explain the dynamic antecedents of changes in abusive supervision in dynamic leader−follower interactions (variable change → abusive supervision change). Second, the existing literature lacks a framework to integrate the different effects of leader−follower interactions on abusive supervision. To overcome the previously discussed issues, based on social interaction theory and the approach−avoidance framework, we propose that changes in subordinates’ approach−avoidance behaviors mediate the effects of changes in former abusive supervision on changes in subsequent abusive supervision, and leader narcissism moderates the proposed indirect pathways. This study conducted a four-wave longitudinal study on 263 leaders and 263 subordinates. In the first-wave survey, leaders reported abusive supervision during the previous two weeks, as well as narcissism, agreeableness, and demographic variables; meanwhile, subordinates reported demographic variables. In the second-wave survey, leaders reported abusive supervision during the previous two weeks, and subordinates reported constructive resistance, dysfunctional resistance, and defensive silence during the previous two weeks. In the third-wave survey, leaders reported abusive supervision during the previous two weeks, and subordinates reported constructive resistance, dysfunctional resistance, and defensive silence during the previous two weeks. Finally, in the fourth-wave survey, leaders reported abusive supervision during the previous two weeks. Using Mplus 8.3 and R 4.2.1, we constructed a latent change score model and conducted Monte Carlo simulations to examine the theoretical model. Empirical results supported our theoretical model and indicated the following: (1) Changes in former abusive supervision had different indirect effects on changes in subsequent abusive supervision through parallel mediators of changes in subordinate’s constructive approach-oriented behavior (i.e., constructive resistance), changes in destructive approach-oriented behavior (i.e., dysfunctional resistance), and changes in avoidance-oriented behavior (i.e., defensive silence). Specifically, changes in former abusive supervision had a negative indirect effect on changes in subsequent abusive supervision through changes in constructive resistance. Changes in former abusive supervision had a positive indirect effect on changes in subsequent abusive supervision through changes in dysfunctional resistance and changes in defensive silence. (2) Leader narcissism moderated the two proposed indirect pathways. Specifically, the negative indirect effect of former abusive supervision on changes in subsequent abusive supervision through changes in constructive resistance is stronger when leader narcissism is high; the positive indirect effect of former abusive supervision on changes in subsequent abusive supervision through changes in defensive silence is stronger when leader narcissism is high. The study makes several theoretical contributions. First, we adopt a latent change score approach to determine the dynamic antecedents of change in abusive supervision, which shifts the direction of abusive supervision research from “level of abusive supervision” to “changes in abusive supervision, ” providing not only new perspectives but also more precise and rigorous causal analyses. Second, we integrate the differential mediating effects of changes in constructive resistance, changes in destructive resistance, and changes in defensive silence in the process of “changes in abusive supervision → changes in subordinates’ approach-avoidance behavior → changes in abusive supervision”, providing a more comprehensive and dialectical perspective for the study of the dynamic antecedents of changes in abusive supervision. Third, by exploring the combined positive and negative moderation effects of leader narcissism, we reinforce the boundary conditions of the dynamic antecedents of changes in abusive supervision from a more comprehensive and dialectical perspective. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Dynamic or static? The influence of ingredient image presentation on perceived product efficacy JIANG Hongyan, ZHANG Mengting, KANG Chunxiao, LIU Junwen 2025, 57 (3):  495-510.  doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0495 Abstract ( 1344 )   HTML ( 251 )   PDF (853KB) ( 2518 )   Peer Review Comments Packaging can transmit beliefs about products’ quality or usage to consumers through visual elements. Among these, perceived product efficacy is one of the important beliefs in consumers’ purchasing decisions. Research has focused mainly on the effects of the number and size of ingredient images on the perceived product efficacy and paid scarce attention to the presentation of ingredient images, whether dynamic or static. Thus, by considering cases of applying dynamic elements to packages using technology, we combine the presentation of ingredient information (dynamic vs. static) with product packaging and explore their impact on perceived product efficacy. Seven studies were conducted to verify our predictions. Study 1 (N = 203) examined the main effects of ingredient images’ presentations on the perceived product efficacy. Participants were randomly assigned to the condition in a one-factor (ingredient image presentation: dynamic vs. static) between-subjects design. Study 2 (N = 205) explored the mechanism underlying the effects of ingredient image presentation on the perceived product efficacy, and mental imagery was introduced into the research. Before Study 3, we conducted a pretest to verify that two text descriptions could be used as different perceived performance risk stimuli. Study 3 (N = 409) employed 2 (ingredient image presentation: dynamic vs. static) by 2 (perceived performance risk: high vs. low) between-subjects design to identify the moderating role of perceived performance risk. Study 4 (N = 160) was aimed to exclude the mediating effect of processing fluency and goal focus and to measure purchasing behavior, examining the influence of perceived product efficacy on purchase behavior. The main findings of this paper are as follows. First, the dynamic (vs. static) presentation of ingredient images had a positive effect on the perceived product efficacy. Second, the dynamic (vs. static) presentation of ingredient images easily aroused mental imagery, leading to higher perceived product efficacy. Third, when customers perceived a high performance risk in products, the presentation of ingredient images had no effect on the perceived product efficacy. By contrast, when the performance risk of the product was low, the effect of the ingredient images presentation was replicated. Thus, the moderating role of perceived performance risk was significant. Finally, we examined the effects of perceived product efficacy on purchase intentions. The results showed that perceived product efficacy had a positive effect on purchase intention. This research extends the theoretical application of associative learning theory to product packaging and elaborates on the mediating mechanism of the effect of the presentation of ingredient images on the perceived product efficacy from the perspective of mental imagery. Moreover, this paper contributes to the research on the antecedents of perceived product efficacy. Meanwhile, our results offer important practical implications for businesses to design product packaging by considering dynamic elements and adopting marketing strategies to mitigate perceived performance risks. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics