How does encoding predict retrieval? Evidence from subsequent memory effects

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01775

Abstract

Abstract:

Within memory research, the relation between encoding and retrieval has been under the spotlight. Research in the past 37 years (1980-present) has demonstrated that there are differences between the neural mechanisms activated by subsequently remembered information and subsequently forgotten information during encoding, which are labeled as subsequent memory effects. Such effects indicate that it’s possible to predict retrieval according to the neural activities during encoding. In the past decade (2008~2017), researchers have opened new paths on subsequent memory effects inspired by previous studies in this field, such as focusing on the influences of processing levels and orientating tasks during encoding, comparing the effects among different retrieval tasks, exploring the similarities and differences among different age groups, and examining the impacts of emotional items and emotional contexts. In this sense, detailed reviews were made from these aspects. Furthermore, we pointed out several possible directions for future studies: (a) integrating previous results, (b) improving theoretical models, (c) exploring more social factors, (d) focusing on individual and group differences, as well as (e) extending applications.

Key words: subsequent memory effects, encoding task, retrieval task, age, emotion

NIE Aiqing, LI Mengsi, PAN Ru. How does encoding predict retrieval? Evidence from subsequent memory effects[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2018, 26(10): 1775-1786.

References 71

1	郭春彦, 朱滢, 丁锦红, 范思陆 . ( 2003). 不同加工与记忆编码关系的ERP研究. 心理学报, 35( 2), 150-156.
2	秦绍正, 韩布新, 罗劲 . ( 2007). 相继记忆模式: 展现情节记忆形成脑机制的窗口. 心理科学进展, 15( 3), 401-408. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1671-3710.2007.03.003 URL
3	Becker N., Kalpouzos G., Persson J., Laukka E. J., & Brehmer Y . ( 2017). Differential effects of encoding instructions on brain activity patterns of item and associative memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 29( 3), 545-559. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_01062 URL
4	Brehmer Y., Shing Y. L., Heekeren H. R., Lindenberger U., & Bäckman L . ( 2016). Training-induced changes in subsequent-memory effects: No major differences among children, younger adults, and older adults. NeuroImage, 131, 214-225. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.11.074 URL
5	Bridger E. K., & Wilding, E. L . ( 2010). Requirements at retrieval modulate subsequent memory effects: An event- related potential study. Cognitive Neuroscience, 1( 4), 254-260. doi: 10.1080/17588928.2010.484882 URL pmid: 24168378
6	Brocher A., & Graf, T. ( 2017). Decision-related factors in pupil old/new effects: Attention, response execution, and false memory. Neuropsychologia, 102, 124-134. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.06.011 URL
7	Cansino S., Estrada-Manilla C., Trejo-Morales P., Pasaye- Alcaraz E. H., Aguilar-Castañeda E., Salgado-Lujambio P., & Sosa-Ortiz A. L . ( 2015). fMRI subsequent source memory effects in young, middle-aged and old adults. Behavioural Brain Research, 280, 24-35. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.11.042 URL pmid: 25476566
8	Cansino S., Trejo-Morales P., Estrada-Manilla C., Pasaye- Alcaraz E. H., Aguilar-Castañeda E., Salgado-Lujambio P., & Sosa-Ortiz A. L . ( 2017). Effective connectivity during successful and unsuccessful recollection in young and old adults. Neuropsychologia, 103, 168-182. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.07.016 URL
9	Cassidy B. S., Hedden T., Yoon C., & Gutchess A. H . ( 2014). Age differences in medial prefrontal activity for subsequent memory of truth value. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 87. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00087 URL pmid: 3916770
10	Collier A. K., Wolf D. H., Valdez J. N., Gur R. E., & Gur R. C . ( 2014). Subsequent memory effects in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 224( 3), 211-217. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.10.012 URL pmid: 25453165
11	de Chastelaine M., Mattson J. T., Wang T. H., Donley B. E., & Rugg M. D . ( 2015). Sensitivity of negative subsequent memory and task-negative effects to age and associative memory performance. Brain Research, 1612, 16-29.
12	de Chastelaine M., Mattson J. T., Wang T. H., Donley B. E., & Rugg M. D . ( 2016). The relationships between age, associative memory performance, and the neural correlates of successful associative memory encoding. Neurobiology of Aging, 42, 163-176. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.03.015 URL
13	de Chastelaine, M., & Rugg, M. D . ( 2015). The effects of study task on prestimulus subsequent memory effects in the hippocampus. Hippocampus, 25( 11), 1217-1223. doi: 10.1002/hipo.22489 URL pmid: 26135908
14	de Chastelaine M., Wang T. H., Minton B., Muftuler L. T., & Rugg M. D . ( 2011). The effects of age, memory performance, and callosal integrity on the neural correlates of successful associative encoding. Cerebral Cortex, 21( 9), 2166-2176. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhq294 URL
15	Doidge A. N., Evans L. H., Herron J. E., & Wilding E. L . ( 2017). Separating content-specific retrieval from post-retrieval processing. Cortex, 86, 1-10. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.10.003 URL pmid: 5264396
16	Dolcos F., LaBar K. S., & Cabeza R . ( 2004). Dissociable effects of arousal and valence on prefrontal activity indexing emotional evaluation and subsequent memory: An event- related fMRI study. NeuroImage, 23, 64-74. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.05.015 URL
17	Dulas M. R., & Duarte, A. ( 2013). The influence of directed attention at encoding on source memory retrieval in the young and old: An ERP study. Brain Research, 1500, 55-71.
18	Duverne S., Motamedinia S., & Rugg M. D . ( 2009). The relationship between aging, performance, and the neural correlates of successful memory encoding. Cerebral Cortex, 19( 3), 733-744. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhn122 URL
19	Estrada-Manilla C., & Cansino, S. ( 2012). Event-related potential variations in the encoding and retrieval of different amounts of contextual information. Behavioural Brain Research, 232( 1), 190-201. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.04.012 URL
20	Fellner M. C., Bäuml K. T., & Hanslmayr S . ( 2013). Brain oscillatory subsequent memory effects differ in power and long-range synchronization between semantic and survival processing. NeuroImage, 79, 361-370. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.121 URL
21	Fernandes M. A., Moscovitch M., Ziegler M., & Grady C . ( 2005). Brain regions associated with successful and unsuccessful retrieval of verbal episodic memory as revealed by divided attention. Neuropsychologia, 43( 8), 1115-1127. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.11.026 URL
22	Friedman D., & Johnson, R. J . ( 2000). Event-related potential (ERP) studies of memory encoding and retrieval: A selective review. Microscopy Research and Technique, 51( 1), 6-28. doi: 10.1002/1097-0029(20001001)51:13.0.CO;2-R URL pmid: 11002349
23	Galli G., Wolpe N., & Otten L. J . ( 2011). Sex differences in the use of anticipatory brain activity to encode emotional events. Journal of Neuroscience, 31( 34), 12364-12370. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1619-11.2011 URL pmid: 3173860
24	Gao C. J., Hermiller M. S., Voss J. L., & Guo C. Y . ( 2015). Basic perceptual changes that alter meaning and neural correlates of recognition memory. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 49. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00049 URL pmid: 4324141
25	Gärtner M., & Bajbouj, M. ( 2014). Encoding-related EEG oscillations during memory formation are modulated by mood state. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscence, 9( 12), 1934-1941. doi: 10.1093/scan/nst184 URL pmid: 24464848
26	Geng F., Canada K., & Riggins T . ( 2018). Age- and performance-related differences in encoding during early childhood: Insights from event-related potentials. Memory, 26( 4), 451-461. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1366526 URL
27	Ghetti S., DeMaster D. M., Yonelinas A. P., & Bunge S. A . ( 2010). Developmental differences in medial temporal lobe function during memory encoding. Journal of Neuroscience, 30( 28), 9548-9556. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3500-09.2010 URL pmid: 2937832
28	Guo C., Duan L., Li W., & Paller K. A . ( 2006). Distinguishing source memory and item memory: Brain potentials at encoding and retrieval. Brain Research, 1118( 1), 142-154. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.08.034 URL pmid: 16978588
29	Hanslmayr S., & Staudigl, T. ( 2014). How brain oscillations form memories — A processing based perspective on oscillatory subsequent memory effects. NeuroImage, 85, 648-655. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.121 URL
30	Hayes J. M., Tang L., Viviano R. P., Rooden V. S., Ofen N., & Damoiseaux J. S . ( 2017). Subjective memory complaints are associated with brain activation supporting successful memory encoding. Neurobiology of Aging, 60, 71-80. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2017.08.015 URL
31	Hoppstädter M., Baeuchl C., Diener C., Flor H., & Meyer P . ( 2015). Simultaneous EEG-fMRI reveals brain networks underlying recognition memory ERP old/new effects. NeuroImage, 116, 112-122. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.05.026 URL
32	Hsieh L. T., Hung D. L., Tzeng O. J. L., Lee J. R., & Cheng S . ( 2009). An event-related potential investigation of the processing of remember/forget cues and item encoding in item-method directed forgetting. Brain Research, 1250, 190-201.
33	Kamp S. M., Bader R., & Mecklinger A . ( 2017). ERP subsequent memory effects differ between inter-item and unitization encoding tasks. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 30. doi: 10.3389/fncom.2017.00030 URL pmid: 5403928
34	Kamp S. M., Potts G. F., & Donchin E . ( 2015). On the roles of distinctiveness and semantic expectancies in episodic encoding of emotional words. Psychophysiology, 52( 12), 1599-1609. doi: 10.1111/psyp.12537 URL
35	Kiefer M., Schuch S., Schenck W., & Fiedler K . ( 2007). Emotion and memory: Event-related potential indices predictive for subsequent successful memory depend on the emotional mood state. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 3( 3), 363-373. doi: 10.2478/v10053-008-0001-8 URL
36	Kim H., ( 2011). Neural activity that predicts subsequent memory and forgetting: A meta-analysis of 74 fMRI studies. NeuroImage, 54, 2446-2461. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.045 URL
37	Kontaxopoulou D., Beratis I. N., Fragkiadaki S., Pavlou D., Yannis G., Economou A., .. Papageorgiou S. G . ( 2017). Incidental and intentional memory: Their relation with attention and executive functions. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32( 5), 519-532. doi: 10.1093/arclin/acx027 URL pmid: 28383645
38	Kuo M. C. C., Liu K. P. Y., Ting K. H ., & Chan, C. C. H. ( 2012). Differentiation of perceptual and semantic subsequent memory effects using an orthographic paradigm. Brain Research, 1486, 82-91.
39	Leventon J. S., & Bauer, P. J . ( 2016). Emotion regulation during the encoding of emotional stimuli: Effects on subsequent memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 312-333. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.024 URL pmid: 26597138
40	Liang J. C., & Preston, A. R . ( 2017). Medial temporal lobe reinstatement of content-specific details predicts source memory. Cortex, 91, 67-78. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.09.011 URL pmid: 28029355
41	Liu Y., Rosburg T., Gao C., Weber C., & Guo C . ( 2017). Differentiation of subsequent memory effects between retrieval practice and elaborative study. Biological Psychology, 127, 134-147. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.05.010 URL pmid: 28552619
42	Maillet D., & Rajah, M. N . ( 2014 a). Age-related differences in brain activity in the subsequent memory paradigm: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 45, 246-257. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.06.006 URL pmid: 24973756
43	Maillet D., & Rajah, M. N . ( 2014 b). Dissociable roles of default-mode regions during episodic encoding. NeuroImage, 89, 244-255. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.11.050 URL pmid: 24315838
44	Malejka S., & Bröder, A. ( 2016). No source memory for unrecognized items when implicit feedback is avoided. Memory & Cognition, 44, 63-72. doi: 10.3758/s13421-015-0549-8 URL
45	Martínez-Galindo J. G., & Cansino, S. ( 2015). Positive and negative emotional contexts unevenly predict episodic memory. Behavioural Brain Research, 291, 89-102. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.05.018 URL pmid: 26003944
46	Nie A., Guo C., Wu Y., Qu N., & Ding J . ( 2004). Picture encoding and retrieval: An event-related potential study. Chinese Science Bulletin, 49( 20), 2148-2154. doi: 10.1007/BF03185781 URL
47	Osipova D., Takashima A., Oostenveld R., Fernández G., Maris E., & Jensen O . ( 2006). Theta and gamma oscillations predict encoding and retrieval of declarative memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 26( 28), 7523-7531. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1948-06.2006 URL pmid: 16837600
48	Ozubko J. D., & Sel, P. ( 2016). Forget all that nonsense: The role of meaning during the forgetting of recollective and familiarity-based memories. Neuropsychologia, 90, 136-147. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.06.026 URL
49	Paller K. A., Kutas M., & Mayes A. R . ( 1987). Neural correlates of encoding in an incidental learning paradigm. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 67( 4), 360-371. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(87)90124-6 URL pmid: 2441971
50	Park H., Kennedy K. M., Rodrigue K. M., Hebrank A., & Park D. C . ( 2013). An fMRI study of episodic encoding across the lifespan: Changes in subsequent memory effects are evident by middle-age. Neuropsychologia, 51( 3), 448-456. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.11.025 URL
51	Park H., Uncapher M. R ., & Rugg, A. M. D. ( 2008). Effects of study task on the neural correlates of source encoding. Learning & Memory, 15( 6), 417-425. doi: 10.1101/lm.878908 URL pmid: 2414252
52	Proberbio A. M., La Mastra F., & Zani A . ( 2016). How negative social bias affects memory for faces: An electrical neuroimaging study. PLoS One, 11( 9), e0162671. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162671 URL
53	Righi S., Marzi T., Toscani M., Baldassi S., Ottonello S., & Viggiano M. P . ( 2012). Fearful expressions enhance recognition memory: Electrophysiological evidence. Acta Psychologica, 139( 1), 7-18. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.09.015 URL pmid: 22036588
54	Rollins L., & Riggins, T. ( 2013). Developmental changes in memory encoding: Insights from event-related potentials. Developmental Science, 16( 4), 599-609. doi: 10.1111/desc.12072 URL pmid: 23786477
55	Rollins L., & Riggins, T. ( 2018). Age-related differences in subjective recollection: ERP studies of encoding and retrieval. Developmental Science, 21( 3), e12583. doi: 10.1111/desc.12583 URL pmid: 28677331
56	Ross R. S., Medrano P., Boyle K., Smolen A., Curran T., & Nyhus E . ( 2015). Genetic variation in the serotonin transporter gene influences ERP old/new effects during recognition memory. Neuropsychologia, 78, 95-107. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.09.028 URL
57	Sanquist T. F., Rohrbaugh J. W., Syndulko K., & Lindsey D. B . ( 1980). Electrocortical signs of levels of processing: Perceptual analysis and recognition memory. Psychophysiology, 17( 6), 568-576. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1980.tb02299.x URL pmid: 7443924
58	Schwarz N., ( 2010). Feelings-as-information theory. In P. Van Lange, A. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology( pp. 289-308). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
59	Shing Y. L., Brehmer Y., Heekeren H. R., Bäckman L., & Lindenberger U . ( 2016). Neural activation patterns of successful episodic encoding: Reorganization during childhood, maintenance in old age. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 59-69. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2016.06.003 URL
60	Shing Y. L., Werkle-Bergner M., Brehmer Y., Müller V., Li S. C., & Lindenberger U . ( 2010). Episodic memory across the lifespan: The contributions of associative and strategic components. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34( 7), 1080-1091. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.002 URL pmid: 19896974
61	Sliwa J., & Freiwald, W. A . ( 2017). A dedicated network for social interaction processing in the primate brain. Science, 356, 745-749. doi: 10.1126/science.aam6383 URL pmid: 5540642
62	Tsoi L., Dungan J., Waytz A., & Young L . ( 2016). Distinct neural patterns of social cognition for cooperation versus competition. NeuroImage, 137, 86-96. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.069 URL pmid: 27165762
63	Vogelsang D. A., Bonnici H. M., Bergström Z. M., Ranganath C., & Simons J. S . ( 2016). Goal-directed mechanisms that constrain retrieval predict subsequent memory for new “foil” information. Neuropsychologia, 89, 356-363. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.07.016 URL
64	Voss J. L., & Paller, K. A . ( 2009). Remembering and knowing: Electrophysiological distinctions at encoding but not retrieval. NeuroImage, 46, 280-289. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.048 URL pmid: 19457375
65	Wagner A. D., Koutstaal W., & Schacter D. L . ( 1999). When encoding yields remembering: Insights from event- related neuroimaging. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 354( 1387), 1307-1324. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1999.0481 URL pmid: 1692641
66	Watts S., Buratto L. G., Brotherhood E. V., Barnacle G. E., & Schaefer A . ( 2014). The neural fate of neutral information in emotion-enhanced memory. Psychophysiology, 51( 7), 673-684. doi: 10.1111/psyp.12211 URL pmid: 24673606
67	Wilding E. L. , & Sharpe, H. ( 2003) . Episodic memory encoding and retrieval: Recent insights from event-related potentials. In A. Zani, A. M. Proverbio, & M. I. Posner (Eds.), The cognitive electrophysiology of mind and brain (pp. 169-196). San Diego: Academic Press.
68	Wong J. X., de Chastelaine M., & Rugg M. D . ( 2013). Comparison of the neural correlates of encoding item-item and item-context associations. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 436. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00436 URL pmid: 3743067
69	Wong S., Irish M., O’Callaghan C., Kumfor F., Savage G., Hodges J. R., .. Hornberger M . ( 2017). Should I trust you? Learning and memory of social interactions in dementia. Neuropsychologia, 104, 157-167. doi: 10.1007/s00234-017-1892-1 URL pmid: 28811259
70	Yick Y. Y., Buratto L. G., & Schaefer A . ( 2015). The effects of negative emotion on encoding-related neural activity predicting item and source recognition. Neuropsychologia, 73, 48-59. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.04.030 URL
71	Yonelinas A. P., Aly M., Wang W. C., & Koen J. D . ( 2010). Recollection and familiarity: Examining controversial assumptions and new directions. Hippocampus, 20( 11), 1178-1194. doi: 10.1002/hipo.20864 URL pmid: 20848606

[1]	GAO Wei, LI Yanping, HUANG Yueyuan, YUAN Jiajin. The effect of goal and situation task-switching training on emotion regulation flexibility and its mechanisms [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2025, 33(2): 202-211.
[2]	QI Ruiying, FENG Ye, SI Fuzhen. Neural oscillations: Exploring the temporal dynamics of syntactic parsing [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2025, 33(2): 291-304.
[3]	FANG Xia, PAN Zhihe. The impact of dynamic sequential context on facial expression perception and the underlying mechanisms [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2025, 33(1): 1-10.
[4]	JIA Yuncheng, CHENG Gang, DING Fangyuan, CHEN jia, LONG Nv, CHEN Yurong, LIN Nan. The relationship between attentional bias toward neutral infant faces and uncertainty in facial expressions [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(9): 1393-1407.
[5]	LIANG Shujing, YANG Guangyong. Poverty leads to the desire to change, and wealth leads to the desire for stability: The impact of perceived money scarcity and abundance on individual risk decision-making [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(8): 1233-1249.
[6]	ZHAO Kai, YANG Runshu, YU Xi, PENG Gege. Exploring the proximal and distal ripple effects of star employees in the organizational context: The theoretical framework of social influence [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(8): 1265-1286.
[7]	MENG Xianxin, YAN Chen, YU Delin, GAO Shuling, FU Xiaolan. The association between childhood maltreatment and internet addiction: A three-level meta-analysis [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(7): 1087-1103.
[8]	WU Jiahui, FU Hailun. A meta-analysis of the relationship between achievement goal orientation and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and student engagement [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(7): 1104-1125.
[9]	CHANG Qianrui, HE Weiqi. Abnormal emotional processing in people with Internet Gaming Disorder [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(7): 1152-1163.
[10]	LI Junpeng, ZHOU Linshu, JIANG Jun, WANG Danni, JIANG Cunmei. The influence of music on prosocial behaviors and its mechanisms [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(7): 1179-1194.
[11]	CHEN Silu, ZHANG Guanglei, LIU Wenxing, TIAN Yuan. The driving mechanism and its function mechanism of gratitude-focused human resource management practices [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(6): 908-927.
[12]	ZHAN Ziwei, WANG Mengmeng, SUO Tao, JIANG Yanju. “A continuous process” and “three stages”: An analysis of the etiology of emotional dysregulation in depressed adolescents [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(6): 928-938.
[13]	WANG Zhen, GUAN Jian. Have gender stereotypes changed or not changed? Evidence from contents, methods, and consequences [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(6): 939-950.
[14]	FENG Pan, ZHAO Hengyue, JIANG Yumeng, ZHANG Yuetong, FENG Tingyong. Cognitive neural mechanisms underlying the impact of oxytocin on conditioned fear processing [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(4): 557-567.
[15]	LI Yanni, WANG Shudan, LIU Yi. Entrepreneur’s resource-induced coping heuristic and resource evolution in the context of loss [J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2024, 32(4): 568-578.