Abstract:

Empathy, the capacity to share and understand the emotions and thoughts of others, is profoundly shaped by cultural context. However, prevailing cross-cultural research has largely been confined to dichotomous comparisons between individualism and collectivism, leaving systematic investigations into the mechanisms within specific cultural contexts underexplored. Although the collectivism framework emphasizes interdependence and attachment to groups, it fails to fully capture the complexity and practical logic of social relations in Chinese society. In contrast, Fei Xiaotong's indigenous sociological construct, termed the “differential mode of association” (chaxu geju), offers a more precise lens for understanding the structure of social networks and the ethical norms governing interpersonal interactions in China. This study adopts this framework to examine empathy in the Chinese cultural context.

The differential mode of association is a multidimensional framework that encompasses both “intimacy-distance” (qin-shu) and “hierarchy-status” (zun-bei). From this perspective, the Western concept of empathy encounters dual challenges in the Chinese context. On the dimension of intimacy-distance, the tendency toward self-other fusion in Chinese social relations conflicts with the clear self-other boundary typically presupposed by Western models of empathy. This characteristic may lead individuals to become overly absorbed in empathic engagement, thereby experiencing heightened personal distress. Such intensified personal distress may, in turn, motivate individuals to avoid direct emotional empathy toward others, as empathic engagement risks further amplifying their own psychological burden. On the dimension of hierarchy-status, the Confucian emphasis on status order and role-based moral obligations constrains the development of egalitarian empathy, as empathizing beyond one’s prescribed role identity may be perceived as inappropriate or even offensive. These tensions underscore fundamental differences in how empathy is conceptualized and practiced across cultures.

Confucian ethics takes ren (benevolence or humaneness) as its internal emotional foundation and li (ritual propriety) as its external normative framework. The interaction between this affective foundation and normative framework gives rise to a distinctive mode of empathy in Chinese culture. This study identifies three key characteristics of this mode. First, emotional expression tends to be implicit and indirect. Individuals are inclined to restrain emotional disclosure in interactions with strangers. Even in close relationships, intense personal distress may lead individuals to avoid precise recognition and direct emotional attunement to others’ affective states, instead conveying understanding and support through rationalization or instrumental, action-based forms of assistance. Second, empathy is characterized by holistic and rationalized cognition. Given the persistent emphasis on relationships and situational context, empathy is not limited to sharing the emotional or bodily experiences of the empathic target. Rather, it often proceeds from an appraisal of the overall relational and situational context and is guided by dialectical and compromise-oriented modes of thinking. Third, empathy is oriented toward problem-solving and action. Due to the relatively blurred self-other boundaries embedded in the differential mode of association, individuals often assume greater responsibility for others’ circumstances. This sense of responsibility is commonly expressed through efforts to resolve problems or to provide concrete support to those in distress. Empathy and understanding are therefore not confined to emotional resonance or verbal expression but are expected to be realized through corresponding behavioral practices, reflecting the cultural ethos that “action speaks louder than words.”

In conclusion, although the core mechanisms of empathy may be universal, its interpersonal expression is deeply shaped by cultural contexts. Empathy should be understood as a situated practice shaped by specific social relations and ethical orders, rather than as a purely intrapsychic capacity. This calls for a more inclusive, culturally sensitive theoretical framework in empathy research. We advocate for further indigenous psychological studies to enrich the global understanding of empathy with perspectives grounded in Chinese culture and to facilitate more culturally attuned applications in clinical and interpersonal settings.

Key words: empathy, Chinese culture, differential mode of association, intimacy-distance, hierarchy-status