Attention bias toward threatening emotional faces in individuals with high-functioning autism

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2020.01172

Abstract

Abstract:

High-functioning autism (HFA) is a term commonly used to identify patients with autism spectrum disorder who have average or above average intellectual abilities but also face severe social dysfunctions. Attention bias towards threatening emotional faces is closely related to the development of social function in individuals with HFA. By reviewing the related research, the authors found that individuals with HFA do not have threatening emotional face attention bias during the automatic processing stage or emotional target participation stage; however, in the control processing stage, where tasks are unrelated to emotions, they demonstrate threatening emotional face attention bias. The theoretical explanations for this threatening emotional face attention bias in individuals with HFA mainly include the Amygdala theory of autism, Intense world theory, and Executive function theory. In terms of neurophysiological mechanisms, it may be related to their abnormal subcutaneous and cortical pathway functions and may be affected by serotonin system genes and oxytocin levels. Based on a comprehensive consideration of research methods and individual factors, future research can further explore the relevant processing characteristics and neuro-biological mechanisms and make efforts to develop scientific and effective intervention strategies.

Key words: high-functioning autism (HFA), threatening, emotional faces, attention bias

CLC Number:

R395

FAN Xiaozhuang, BI Xiaobin, XIE Yu, HE Huizhong. Attention bias toward threatening emotional faces in individuals with high-functioning autism[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2020, 28(7): 1172-1186.

References 130

[1]	白学军, 贾丽萍, 王敬欣. (2013). 抑制范式下的情绪注意偏向. 心理科学进展, 21(5), 785-791.
[2]	陈顺森. (2012). 自闭症幼儿面孔加工特点的眼动研究: 社会认知缺陷指标的探索(博士学位论文). 天津师范大学.
[3]	陈顺森, 白学军, 沈德立, 闫国利, 张灵聪. (2011). 7~10岁自闭症谱系障碍儿童对情绪面孔的觉察与加工. 心理发展与教育, 27(5), 449-458.
[4]	贺荟中, 梁志高. (2013). 自闭症儿童执行功能研究述评. 教育理论与实践. 33(31), 45-48.
[5]	巨兴达, 宋伟, 徐婧. (2018). CHRM3基因与孤独症谱系障碍. 心理科学进展. 26(12), 2141-2152.
[6]	林云强. (2012). 自闭症谱系障碍儿童威胁知觉的实验研究 (博士学位论文). 华东师范大学, 上海.
[7]	林云强, 曹贤佳, 朱慧敏, 李菲菲. (2019). 面孔群持续时间对自闭症儿童表情威胁知觉影响的眼动研究. 中国特殊教育. 3, 61-68.
[8]	林云强, 刘宝根, 陈冠杏. (2014). 面孔方向对自闭症儿童表情视觉搜索影响的眼动研究. 中国特殊教育. 5, 25-32.
[9]	林云强, 唐泉. (2015). 矩阵大小对自闭症儿童表情视觉搜索影响的眼动研究. 中国特殊教育. 12, 58-65.
[10]	林云强, 童叶莹. (2016). 面孔偏转对自闭症儿童表情觉察影响的实验研究. 中国特殊教育,(12), 33-40.
[11]	罗禹, 高朋, 赵守盈, 张禹.(2017). 急性应激对威胁刺激注意定向和注意解除的影响: 认知神经机制研究. 心理科学进展. 25(3), 381-392.
[12]	彭晓哲, 周晓林. (2005). 情绪信息与注意偏向. 心理科学进展, 13(4), 488-496.
[13]	齐亚菲, 梁良, 莫书亮, 王福兴. (2016). 孤独症儿童对限制性兴趣刺激的视觉注意: 一项眼动研究. 中国特殊教育, 5, 5.
[14]	文涛, 汪亚珉, 丁锦红. (2011). 威胁性刺激注意偏向的研究范式. 人类工效学. 17(3), 76-79.
[15]	武文佼, 张鹏. (2016). 自闭症谱系障碍的生物基础. 心理科学进展, 24(5), 739-752.
[16]	张禹, 罗禹, 赵守盈, 陈维, 李红. (2014). 对威胁刺激的注意偏向: 注意定向加速还是注意解除困难? 心理科学进展, 22(7), 1129-1138.
[17]	Adams, N. C., & Jarrold, C. (2012). Inhibition in Autism: Children with Autism have difficulty Inhibiting irrelevant distractors but not prepotent responses. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 42(6), 1052-1063.
[18]	Alvares, G. A., Chen, N. T. M., Notebaert, L., Granich, J., Mitchell, C., & Whitehouse, A. J. O . (2019). Brief social attention bias modification for children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 12(3), 527-535. URL pmid: 30632321
[19]	American Psychiatric, Association.(2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.) (pp.50-59). Washington, DC: American Psychiatry Association Press.
[20]	Andari, E., Richard, N., Leboyer, M., & Sirigu, A. (2016). Adaptive coding of the value of social cues with oxytocin, an fMRI study in autism spectrum disorder. Cortex, 76, 79-88. URL pmid: 26872344
[21]	Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis . Clinical Psychology Review, 32(8), 704-723.
[22]	Ashwin, C., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., O’Riordan, M., & Bullmore, E. T. (2007). Differential activation of the amygdala and the ‘social brain’ during fearful face- processing in Asperger syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 45(1), 2-14. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.04.014 URL pmid: 16806312
[23]	Ashwin, C., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006a). Attention bias to faces in Asperger syndrome: A pictorial emotion Stroop study. Psychological Medicine. 36(6), 835-843. doi: 10.1017/S0033291706007203 URL pmid: 16512970
[24]	Ashwin, C., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2006b). Finding a face in the crowd: Testing the anger superiority effect in Asperger syndrome. Brain and Cognition. 61(1), 78-95. URL pmid: 16455174
[25]	Auday, E. S., Taber-Thomas, B. C., & Perez-Edgar, K. E. (2018). Neural correlates of attention bias to masked facial threat cues: Examining children at-risk for social anxiety disorder. Neuroimage Clinical, 19, 202-212. URL pmid: 30023170
[26]	Bachevalier, J., & Loveland, K. A. (2006). The orbitofrontal- amygdala circuit and self-regulation of social-emotional behavior in autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(1), 97-117. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.07.002 URL pmid: 16157377
[27]	Bannerman, R. L., Milders, M., de Gelder, B., & Sahraie, A. (2009). Orienting to threat: Faster localization of fearful facial expressions and body postures revealed by saccadic eye movements. Biological Sciences, 276(1662), 1635-1641. URL pmid: 19203922
[28]	Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Bullmore, E. T., Wheelwright, S., Ashwin, C., & Williams, S. C. (2000). The amygdala theory of Autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(3), 355-364.
[29]	Bryson, S., Garon, N., McMullen, T., Brian, J., Zwaigenbaum, L., Armstrong, V., ... Szatmari, P. (2018). Impaired disengagement of attention and its relationship to emotional distress in infants at high-risk for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 40(5), 487-501. URL pmid: 28914144
[30]	Chandana, S. R., Behen, M. E., Juhász, C., Muzik, O., Rothermel, R. D., Mangner, T. J., ... Chugani, D. C. (2005). Significance of abnormalities in developmental trajectory and asymmetry of cortical serotonin synthesis in autism. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2-3), 171-182. doi: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.08.002 URL pmid: 15749243
[31]	Chiang, H.-L., Kao, W.-C., Chou, M.-C., Chou, W.-J., Chiu, Y.-N., Wu, Y.-Y., & Gau, S. S.-F. (2018). School dysfunction in youth with autistic spectrum disorder in Taiwan: The effect of subtype and ADHD. Autism Research, 11(6), 857-869. URL pmid: 29427542
[32]	Cisler, J. M., Bacon, A. K., & Williams, N. L. (2009). Phenomenological characteristics of attentional biases towards threat: A critical review. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33(2), 221-234. URL pmid: 20622985
[33]	Cisler, J. M., & Koster, E. H. W. (2010). Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 203-216. URL pmid: 20005616
[34]	Corden, B., Chilvers, R., & Skuse, D. (2008). Avoidance of emotionally arousing stimuli predicts social-perceptual impairment in Asperger's syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 46(1), 137-147. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.08.005 URL pmid: 17920642
[35]	Courchesne, E., & Pierce, K. (2005). Why the frontal cortex in autism might be talking only to itself: Local over- connectivity but long-distance disconnection. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15(2), 225-230.
[36]	Crawford, H., Moss, J., Anderson, G. M., Oliver, C., & McCleery, J. P. (2015). Implicit discrimination of basic facial expressions of positive/negative emotion in Fragile X Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 120(4), 328-345. URL pmid: 26161470
[37]	Dalton, K. M., Nacewicz, B. M., Johnstone, T., Schaefer, H. S., Gernsbacher, M. A., Goldsmith, H. H., ... Davidson, R. J. (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nature Neuroscience, 8(4), 519-526. doi: 10.1038/nn1421 URL pmid: 15750588
[38]	Dawson, G., Webb, S. J., Carver, L., Panagiotides, H., & Mcpartland, J. (2004). Young children with autism show atypical brain responses to fearful versus neutral facial expressions of emotion. Developmental Science, 7(3), 340-359. URL pmid: 15595374
[39]	de Giambattista, C., Ventura, P., Trerotoli, P., Margari, M., Palumbi, R., & Margari, L. (2019). Subtyping the autism spectrum disorder: Comparison of children with high functioning Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 49(1), 138-150. URL pmid: 30043350
[40]	de Jong, M. C., van Engeland, H., & Kemner, C. (2008). Attentional effects of gaze shifts are influenced by emotion and spatial frequency, but not in Autism. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(4), 443-454. doi: 10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816429a6 URL pmid: 18356706
[41]	Eack, S. M., Mazefsky, C. A., & Minshew, N. J. (2015). Misinterpretation of facial expressions of emotion in verbal adults with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 19(3), 308-315.
[42]	Embregts, P., & van Nieuwenhuijzen, M. (2009). Social information processing in boys with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and mild to borderline intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 53(11), 922-931. URL pmid: 19719515
[43]	Faja, S., Dawson, G., Aylward, E., Wijsman, E. M., & Webb, S. J. (2016). Early event-related potentials to emotional faces differ for adults with autism spectrum disorder and by serotonin transporter genotype. Clinical Neurophysiology, 127(6), 2436-2447. URL pmid: 27178863
[44]	Farran, E. K., Branson, A., & King, B. J. (2011). Visual search for basic emotional expressions in autism; impaired processing of anger, fear and sadness, but a typical happy face advantage. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(1), 455-462.
[45]	Fernández, M., Mollinedo-Gajate, I., & Peñagarikano, O. (2018). Neural circuits for social cognition: Implications for Autism. Neuroscience, 370, 148-162.
[46]	Field, A. P., & Lester, K. J. (2010). Is there room for ‘development’ in developmental models of information processing biases to threat in children and adolescents? Clinical Child Family Psychology Review, 13(4), 315-332. URL pmid: 20811944
[47]	Fishman, I., Linke, A. C., Hau, J., Carper, R. A., & Müller, R.-A. (2018). Atypical functional connectivity of amygdala related to reduced symptom severity in children with Autism. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 57(10), 764-774.e3. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2018.06.015 URL pmid: 30274651
[48]	Fox, E., Lester, V., Russo, R., Bowles, R. J., Pichler, A., & Dutton, K. (2000). Facial expressions of emotion: Are angry faces detected more efficiently? Cognition and Emotion, 14(1), 61-92. URL pmid: 17401453
[49]	Fu, X. X., & Pérez-Edgar, K. (2019). Threat-related attention bias in socioemotional development: A critical review and methodological considerations. Developmental Review, 51, 31-57. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2018.11.002 URL pmid: 32205901
[50]	García-Blanco, A., López-Soler, C., Vento, M., Carmen García-Blanco, M., Gago, B., & Perea, M. (2017). Communication deficits and avoidance of angry faces in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 62, 218-226. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.02.002 URL
[51]	García-Blanco, A. C., Yáñez, N., Vázquez, M. A., Marcos, I., & Perea, M. (2017). Modulation of attention by socio- emotional scenes in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 33, 39-46.
[52]	Geurts, H. M., van den Bergh, S. F. W. M., & Ruzzano, L. (2014). Prepotent response inhibition and interference control in autism spectrum disorders: Two meta-analyses. Autism Research, 7(4), 407-420.
[53]	Ghosn, F., Perea, M., Castelló, J., Vázquez, M. Á., Yáñez, N., Marcos, I., ... García-Blanco, A. (2018). Attentional patterns to emotional faces versus scenes in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 49(4), 1484-1492. URL pmid: 30536217
[54]	Goodwin, A., Matthews, N. L., & Smith, C. J. (2017). The effects of early language on age at diagnosis and functioning at school age in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(5), 2176-2188.
[55]	Hadwin, J. A., & Richards, H. J. (2016). Working memory training and CBT reduces anxiety symptoms and attentional biases to threat: A preliminary study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 47. URL pmid: 26869956
[56]	Harms, M. B., Martin, A., & Wallace, G. L. (2010). Facial emotion recognition in autism spectrum disorders: A review of behavioral and neuroimaging studies. Neuropsychology Review, 20(3), 290-322. URL pmid: 20809200
[57]	Herrington, J. D., Maddox, B. B., McVey, A. J., Franklin, M. E., Yerys, B. E., Miller, J. S., & Schultz, R. T. (2017). Negative valence in Autism Spectrum Disorder: The relationship between amygdala activity, selective attention, and co-occurring anxiety. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience And Neuroimaging, 2(6), 510-517.
[58]	Hill, E. L. (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in Autism. Developmental Review, 24(2), 189-233.
[59]	Hollocks, M. J., Ozsivadjian, A., Matthews, C. E., Howlin, P., & Simonoff, E. (2013). The relationship between attentional bias and anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research, 6(4), 237-247. doi: 10.1002/aur.1285 URL pmid: 23907924
[60]	Hollocks, M. J., Pickles, A., Howlin, P., & Simonoff, E. (2016). Dual cognitive and biological correlates of anxiety in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(10), 1-13.
[61]	Horiuchi, F., Oka, Y., Uno, H., Kawabe, K., Okada, F., Saito, I., ... Ueno, S.-i. (2014). Age- and sex-related emotional and behavioral problems in children with autism spectrum disorders: Comparison with control children. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 68(7), 542-550. URL pmid: 24447342
[62]	Hung, Y. W., Smith, M. L., & Taylor, M. J. (2012). Development of ACC-amygdala activations in processing unattended fear. NeuroImage, 60(1), 545-552. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.12.003 URL pmid: 22182768
[63]	Irwanto, Kahfi, M., Febriyana, N., Hartini, S., & Takada, S. (2019). Emotional and behavioral problems of pre-school children with autistic spectrum disorder assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist 1-5. The Kobe Journal of Medical Sciences, 64(5), E170-E173. URL pmid: 30988263
[64]	Isomura, T., Ito, H., Ogawa, S., & Masataka, N. (2014). Absence of predispositional attentional sensitivity to angry faces in children with autism spectrum disorders. Scientific Reports, 4, 7525. URL pmid: 25519496
[65]	Isomura, T., Ogawa, S., Yamada, S., Shibasaki, M., & Masataka, N. (2014a). The effect of inversion on the anger superiority effect in children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Psychological Abnormalities in Children, 3(2), 117.
[66]	Isomura, T., Ogawa, S., Yamada, S., Shibasaki, M., & Masataka, N. (2014b). Preliminary evidence that different mechanisms underlie the anger superiority effect in children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(5), 461.
[67]	Kamila, M., & Markram, H. (2010). The Intense World Theory - A unifying theory of the neurobiology of autism. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 224. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2010.00224 URL pmid: 21191475
[68]	Kanat, M., Heinrichs, M., Mader, I., van Elst, L. T., & Domes, G. (2015). Oxytocin modulates amygdala reactivity to masked fearful eyes. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(11), 2632-2638. URL pmid: 25881796
[69]	Kanat, M., Spenthof, I., Riedel, A., van Elst, L. T., Heinrichs, M., & Domes, G. (2017). Restoring effects of oxytocin on the attentional preference for faces in autism. Translational Psychiatry, 7(4), e1097. URL pmid: 28418399
[70]	Kappenman, E. S., Farrens, J. L., Luck, S. J., & Proudfit, G. H. (2014). Behavioral and ERP measures of attentional bias to threat in the dot-probe task: Poor reliability and lack of correlation with anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1368. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01368 URL pmid: 25538644
[71]	Katarzyna, C., Fred, V., & Ami, K. (2010). Limited attentional bias for faces in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(2), 178-185. URL pmid: 20124117
[72]	Kleinhans, N. M., Richards, T., Weaver, K., Johnson, L. C., Greenson, J., Dawson, G., & Aylward, E. (2010). Association between amygdala response to emotional faces and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia, 48(12), 3665-3670. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.07.022 URL
[73]	Kliemann, D., Dziobek, I., Hatri, A., Steimke, R., & Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Atypical reflexive gaze patterns on emotional faces in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(37), 12281-12287. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0688-10.2010 URL pmid: 20844124
[74]	Koster, E. H. W., Verschuere, B., Burssens, B., Custers, R., & Crombez, G. (2007). Attention for emotional faces under restricted awareness revisited:Do emotional faces automatically attract attention? Emotion, 7(2), 285-295. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.285 URL pmid: 17516808
[75]	Koyama, T., Tachimori, H., Osada, H., Takeda, T., & Kurita, H. (2007). Cognitive and symptom profiles in Asperger's syndrome and high-functioning autism. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 61(1), 99-104. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2007.01617.x URL pmid: 17239046
[76]	Kranz, T. M., Kopp, M., Waltes, R., Sachse, M., Duketis, E., Jarczok, T. A., ... Chiocchetti, A. G. (2016). Meta-analysis and association of two common polymorphisms of the human oxytocin receptor gene in autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 9(10), 1036-1045. doi: 10.1002/aur.1597 URL pmid: 26788924
[77]	Krysko, K. M., & Rutherford, M. D. (2009). A threat-detection advantage in those with autism spectrum disorders. Brain and Cognition, 69(3), 472-480. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2008.10.002 URL
[78]	Lacroix, A., Guidetti, M., Rogé, B., & Reilly, J. (2014). Facial emotion recognition in 4-to 8-year-olds with autism spectrum disorder: A developmental trajectory approach. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(9), 1146-1154. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2014.05.012 URL
[79]	Leboyer, M., Philippe, A., Bouvard, M., Guilloud-Bataille, M., Bondoux, D., Tabuteau, F., ... Launay, J. M. (1999). Whole blood serotonin and plasma beta-endorphin in autistic probands and their first-degree relatives. Biological Psychiatry, 45(2), 158-163. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(97)00532-5 URL pmid: 9951562
[80]	Leung, R. C., Pang, E. W., Anagnostou, E., & Taylor, M. J. (2018). Young adults with autism spectrum disorder show early atypical neural activity during emotional face processing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 57. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00193 URL pmid: 32581743
[81]	Leung, R. C., Pang, E. W., Cassel, D., Brian, J. A., Smith, M. L., & Taylor, M. J. (2015). Early neural activation during facial affect processing in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. NeuroImage Clinical, 7, 203-212. doi: 10.1016/j.nicl.2014.11.009 URL pmid: 25610782
[82]	LoBue, V., & Matthews, K. (2014). The snake in the grass revisited: An experimental comparison of threat detection paradigms. Cognition and Emotion, 28(1), 22-35. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2013.790783 URL pmid: 23668328
[83]	Luxford, S., Hadwin, J. A., & Kovshoff, H. (2017). Evaluating the effectiveness of a school-based cognitive behavioural therapy intervention for anxiety in adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(12), 3896-3908. doi: 10.1007/s10803-016-2857-7 URL pmid: 27440250
[84]	Macintosh, K. E., & Dissanayake, C. (2004). Annotation: The similarities and differences between autistic disorder and Asperger's disorder: A review of the empirical evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(3), 421-434. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00234.x URL pmid: 15055363
[85]	Markram, H., Rinaldi, T., & Markram, K. (2007). The Intense World Syndrome - An alternative hypothesis for autism. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 1(1), 77-96. doi: 10.3389/neuro.01.1.1.006.2007 URL pmid: 18982120
[86]	Maskey, M., Warnell, F., Parr, J. R., le Couteur, A., & McConachie, H. (2013). Emotional and behavioural problems in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 43(4), 851-859. doi: 10.1007/s10803-012-1622-9 URL pmid: 22895777
[87]	Matsuda, S., Minagawa, Y., & Yamamoto, J. (2015). Gaze behavior of children with asd toward pictures of facial expressions. Autism Research and Treatment, 9, 617-190.
[88]	May, T., Cornish, K., & Rinehart, N. J. (2015). Mechanisms of anxiety related attentional biases in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(10), 3339-3350. doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2500-z URL pmid: 26070278
[89]	May, T., Cornish, K., & Rinehart, N. J. (2016). Exploring factors related to the anger superiority effect in children with autism spectrum disorder. Brain and Cognition, 106, 65-71. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2016.05.004 URL pmid: 27258410
[90]	Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1998). A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36(9), 809-848. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00063-1 URL pmid: 9701859
[91]	Monk, C. S., Weng, S. J., Wiggins, J. L., Kurapati, N., Louro, H. M. C., Carrasco, M., ... Lord, C. (2010). Neural circuitry of emotional face processing in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 35(2), 105-114. doi: 10.1503/jpn.090085 URL pmid: 20184808
[92]	Morales, S., Fu, X. Y., & Pérez-Edgar, K. E. (2016). A developmental neuroscience perspective on affect-biased attention. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 26-41. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2016.08.001 URL pmid: 27606972
[93]	Morales, S., Pérez-Edgar, K. E., & Buss, K. A. (2014). Attention biases towards and away from threat mark the relation between early dysregulated fear and the later emergence of social withdrawal. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(6), 1067-1078. doi: 10.1007/s10802-014-9963-9 URL pmid: 25510354
[94]	Okon-Singer, H., Lichtenstein-Vidne, L., & Cohen, N. (2013). Dynamic modulation of emotional processing. Biological Psychology, 92(3), 480-491. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.05.010 URL
[95]	Pérez-Edgar, K., Taber-Thomas, B., Auday, E., & Morales, S. (2014). Temperament and attention as core mechanisms in the early emergence of anxiety. Contributions to Human Development, 26, 42-56. doi: 10.1159/000354350 URL pmid: 26663953
[96]	Pilorge, M., Fassier, C., le Corronc, H., Potey, A., Bai, J., de Gois, S., ... Betancur, C. (2016). Genetic and functional analyses demonstrate a role for abnormal glycinergic signaling in autism. Molecular Psychiatry, 21, 936-945. doi: 10.1038/mp.2015.139 URL pmid: 26370147
[97]	Pisula, E., Pudło, M., Słowińska, M., Kawa, R., Strzaska, M., Banasiak, A., & Wolanczyk, T. (2017). Behavioral and emotional problems in high-functioning girls and boys with autism spectrum disorders: Parents' reports and adolescents' self-reports. Autism, 21(6), 738-748. doi: 10.1177/1362361316675119 URL pmid: 27899716
[98]	Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13(1), 25-42. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325 URL
[99]	Quintana, D. S., Westlye, L. T., Hope, S., Nærland, T., Elvsåshagen, T., Dørum, E., ... Andreassen, O. A. (2017). Dose-dependent social-cognitive effects of intranasal oxytocin delivered with novel breath powered device in adults with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover trial. Translational Psychiatry, 7(5), e1136. doi: 10.1038/tp.2017.103 URL pmid: 28534875
[100]	Reinholdt-dunne, M. L., Mogg, K., Esbjorn, B. H., & Bradley, B. P. (2012). Effects of age and anxiety on processing threat cues in healthy children. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 3(1), 30-41.
[101]	Rosset, D., Santos, A., da Fonseca, D., Rondan, C., Poinso, F., & Deruelle, C. (2011). More than just another face in the crowd: Evidence for an angry superiority effect in children with and without autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(2), 949-956.
[102]	Rozin, P., Lowery, L., & Ebert, R. (1994). Varieties of disgust faces and the structure of disgust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(5), 870-881. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.66.5.870 URL pmid: 8014832
[103]	Ruzzo, E. K., Pérez-Cano, L., Jung, J.-Y., Wang, L.-k., Kashef-Haghighi, D., Hartl, C., ... Wall, D. P. (2019). Inherited and De Novo genetic risk for autism impacts shared networks. Cell, 178(4), 850-866.e826. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.07.015 URL pmid: 31398340
[104]	Sacrey, L.-A. R., Armstrong, V. L., Bryson, S. E., & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2014). Impairments to visual disengagement in autism spectrum disorder: A review of experimental studies from infancy to adulthood. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 559-577. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.011 URL pmid: 25454358
[105]	Sasson, N. J., Shasteen, J. R., & Pinkham, A. E. (2016). Brief report: Reduced prioritization of facial threat in adults with Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(4), 1471-1476. URL pmid: 26590971
[106]	Sato, W., Sawada, R., Uono, S., Yoshimura, S., Kochiyama, T., Kubota, Y., ... Toichi, M. (2017). Impaired detection of happy facial expressions in autism. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 13340. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-11900-y URL pmid: 29042592
[107]	Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84(2), 127-190. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.127 URL
[108]	Sears, C., Quigley, L., Fernandez, A., Newman, K., & Dobson, K. (2018). The reliability of attentional biases for emotional images measured using a free-viewing eye-tracking paradigm. Behavior Research Methods, 51(6), 2748-2760. doi: 10.3758/s13428-018-1147-z URL pmid: 30350023
[109]	Sierra-Mercado, D., Padilla-Coreano, N., & Quirk, G. J. J . (2011). Dissociable roles of prelimbic and infralimbic cortices, ventral hippocampus, and basolateral amygdala in the expression and extinction of conditioned fear . Neuropsychopharmacology. 36(2), 529-538. doi: 10.1038/npp.2010.184 URL pmid: 20962768
[110]	Staugaard, S. R. (2009). Reliability of two versions of the dot-probe task using photographic faces. Psychology Science Quarterly, 51(3), 339-350.
[111]	Sussman, T. J., Jin, J. W., & Mohanty, A. (2016). Top-down and bottom-up factors in threat-related perception and attention in anxiety. Biological Psychology, 121, 160-172. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.08.006 URL pmid: 27546616
[112]	Tamietto, M., & de Gelder, B. (2010). Neural bases of the non-conscious perception of emotional signals. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(10), 697-709. doi: 10.1038/nrn2889 URL pmid: 20811475
[113]	Torrence, R. D., & Troup, L. J. (2018). Event-related potentials of attentional bias toward faces in the dot-probe task: A systematic review. Psychophysiology, 55(6), e13051. doi: 10.1111/psyp.13051 URL pmid: 29266532
[114]	Tottenham, N., Hertzig, M. E., Gillespie-Lynch, K., Gilhooly, T., Millner, A. J., & Casey, B. J. (2014). Elevated amygdala response to faces and gaze aversion in autism spectrum disorder. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(1), 106-117. doi: 10.1093/scan/nst050 URL pmid: 23596190
[115]	Unruh, K. E., Bodfish, J. W., & Gotham, K. O. (2018). Adults with autism and adults with depression show similar attentional biases to social-affective images. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 7, 1-12.
[116]	Uono, S., Sato, W., & Toichi, M. (2009). Dynamic fearful gaze does not enhance attention orienting in individuals with Asperger's disorder. Brain and Cognition, 71(3), 229-233. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2009.08.015 URL pmid: 19781841
[117]	van Honk, J., Peper, J. S., & Schutter, D. J. L. G . (2005). Testosterone reduces unconscious fear but not consciously experienced anxiety: Implications for the disorders of fear and anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 58(3), 218-225. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.003 URL pmid: 15939408
[118]	van Rooijen, R., Ploeger, A., & Kret, M. E. (2017). The dot-probe task to measure emotional attention: A suitable measure in comparative studies? Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24(6), 1686-1717. doi: 10.3758/s13423-016-1224-1 URL pmid: 28092078
[119]	von dem Hagen, E. A. H., Passamonti, L., Nutland, S., Sambrook, J., Calder, A. J. (2011). The serotonin transporter gene polymorphism and the effect of baseline on amygdala response to emotional faces. Neuropsychologia, 49(4), 674-680. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.013 URL pmid: 21167188
[120]	Waechter, S., Nelson, A. L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., & Oakman, J. (2014). Measuring attentional bias to threat: Reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38(3), 313-333.
[121]	Waechter, S., & Stolz, J. A. (2015). Trait anxiety, state anxiety, and attentional bias to threat: Assessing the psychometric properties of response time measures. Cognitive Therapy Research, 39(4), 441-458.
[122]	Wagner, J. B., Hirsch, S. B., Vogel-Farley, V. K., Redcay, E., & Nelson, C. A. (2013). Eye-tracking, autonomic, and electrophysiological correlates of emotional face processing in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(1), 188-199. doi: 10.1007/s10803-012-1565-1 URL pmid: 22684525
[123]	White, S. W., Maddox, B. B., & Panneton, R. K. (2015). Fear of negative evaluation influences eye gaze in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(11), 3446-3457. doi: 10.1007/s10803-014-2349-6 URL pmid: 25578337
[124]	Wilson, C. E., & Saldaña, D. (2018). No evidence of atypical attentional disengagement in autism: A study across the spectrum. Autism, 23(3), 677-688. doi: 10.1177/1362361318768025 URL pmid: 29663829
[125]	Xiong, J., Chen, S. M., Pang, N., Deng, X. L., Yang, L. F., He, F., ... Peng, J. (2019). Neurological diseases with autism spectrum disorder: Role of ASD risk genes. Frontier in Neuroscience, 13, 349.
[126]	Xu, L., Ma, X. L., Zhao, W. H., Luo, L. Z., Yao, S. X., & Kendrick, K. M. (2015). Oxytocin enhances attentional bias for neutral and positive expression faces in individuals with higher autistic traits. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 62, 352-358. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.09.002 URL pmid: 26372768
[127]	Yeung, M. K., Lee, T. L., & Chan, A. S. (2019). Impaired recognition of negative facial expressions is partly related to facial perception deficits in adolescents with high- functioning autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 2, 1-11.
[128]	Yiend, J. (2010). The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information. Cognition & Emotion, 24(1), 3-47.
[129]	Zalla, T., & Sperduti, M. (2013). The amygdala and the relevance detection theory of autism: An evolutionary perspective. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 894. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00894 URL pmid: 24416006
[130]	Zhao, X., Zhang, P., Fu, L., & Maes, J. H. R . (2016). Attentional biases to faces expressing disgust in children with autism spectrum disorders: an exploratory study. Scientific Reports, 6, 19381. doi: 10.1038/srep19381 URL pmid: 26758779