Sweet poison: How does benevolent sexism affect women’s career development?

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2019.01478

Abstract

Abstract:

Benevolent sexism (BS) is a set of interrelated attitudes toward women that are subjectively positive in tone but viewing women stereotypically in traditional gender roles. These attitudes failed to be detected as prejudice by the perceiver but still reinforces women’s subordinate status. Benevolent sexism revealed in family education and intimate relationships and in workplace contexts restricts the career development of women by disarming them and, rather than compelling them directly, persuading women to internalize these restrictions. To explain the function mechanism, previous studies have investigated how women perceive and react to benevolent sexism with corresponding theories such as stereotype threat, fear of success, and system justification theory. However, the objective and neutral standpoint that the researchers hold in the study of benevolent sexism is worth debating from the perspective of feminist psychology because masculine value has been implicitly admired and heterogeneity among women has been ignored. Considering the recent trend of feminist psychology, some further research ideas are implied and discussed in this review.

Key words: benevolent sexism, women’s career development;, feminism, gender equality

CLC Number:

B849: C91

ZHANG Shanshan, XIE Jinyu, WU Min. Sweet poison: How does benevolent sexism affect women’s career development?[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2019, 27(8): 1478-1488.

Figures/Tables 1

References 68

[1]	蔡华俭, 黄玄凤, 宋海荣 . (2008). 性别角色和主观幸福感的关系模型: 基于中国大学生的检验. 心理学报, 40( 4), 474-486.
[2]	蔡学青 . (2008). 女大学生矛盾性别偏见与成就动机关系实证研究(硕士学位论文). 华中科技大学, 武汉.
[3]	曹欣蕾, 曹韵秋 . (2018). 善意的性别偏见与依赖定向帮助的关系: 人际知觉的调节作用. 心理学进展, 8(4), 527-535.
[4]	陈志霞, 陈剑峰 . (2007). 善意和敌意性别偏见及其对社会认知的影响. 心理科学进展, 15( 3), 464-469.
[5]	陈志霞, 徐荣华 . (2013). 矛盾性别偏见与工作场所性骚扰态度的相关研究. 妇女研究论丛, ( 4), 54-60.
[6]	第三期中国妇女社会地位调查课题组. (2011). 第三期中国妇女社会地位调查主要数据报告. 妇女研究论丛, ( 6), 5-15.
[7]	管健, 柴民权 . (2011). 刻板印象威胁: 新议题与新争议. 心理科学进展, 19( 12), 1842-1850.
[8]	郭爱妹 . (2001). 试析女性主义心理学的三种研究取向. 南京师大学报(社会科学版), ( 6), 83-89.
[9]	郭爱妹 . (2006).女性主义心理学. 上海: 上海教育出版社.
[10]	李银河 . (2005). 女性主义. 济南: 山东人民出版社.
[11]	吕胜男 . (2009). 矛盾性别偏见对女性职业发展的影响(硕士学位论文). 华中科技大学, 武汉.
[12]	乔志宏, 郑静璐, 宋慧婷, 蒋盈 . (2014). 阶层差异职业性别隔离的影响机制——基于社会支配倾向视角. 心理学报, 46( 5), 691-701.
[13]	王海珍, 梅晓凤, 卫旭华 . (2017). 女性员工如何进行性别身份印象管理? 心理科学进展, 25( 9), 1597-1606.
[14]	西蒙娜·德·波伏娃. (2011).第二性Ⅱ (郑克鲁译). 上海: 上海译文出版社.
[15]	杨芳, 郭小敏 . (2017). “全面二孩”对职业女性的影响及政策支持研究——基于工作与家庭平衡的视角. 中国青年研究, ( 10), 31-36.
[16]	中国妇女报编辑部. (2019-01-29). 网络传播新变局与妇女儿童舆情演进新态势——2018年度妇女儿童热点舆情观察与分析.中国妇女报. p5
[17]	Allport G. . (1954). The nature of prejudice.Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley.
[18]	Barreto M. &Ellemers N., (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology,35(5), 633-642.
[19]	Biernat M.,Tocci M.J., &Williams J.C . (2012). The language of performance evaluations: Gender-based shifts in content and consistency of judgment. Social Psychological and Personality Science,3(2), 186-192.
[20]	Bosson J. K., Pinel E. C., & Vandello J. A . (2010). The emotional impact of ambivalent sexism: Forecasts versus real experiences. Sex Roles,62(7-8), 520-531. doi: 10.1007/s11199-009-9664-y
[21]	Bradleygeist J. C., Rivera I., & Geringer S. D . (2015). The collateral damage of ambient sexism: Observing sexism impacts bystander self-esteem and career aspirations. Sex Roles,73(1-2), 29-42.
[22]	Carol G. (1993). In a different voice:Psychological theory and women's development.Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press.
[23]	Chernyak-Hai L. &Waismel-Manor R., (2019). Gendered help at the workplace: Implications for organizational power relations. Psychological Reports,122(3), 1087-1116. doi: 10.1177/0033294118773483
[24]	Chen Z. X., Fiske S. T., & Lee T. L . (2009). Ambivalent sexism and power-related gender-role ideology in marriage. Sex Roles,60(11-12), 765-778. doi: 10.1007/s11199-009-9585-9
[25]	Chisango T., Mayekiso T., & Thomae M . (2015). The social nature of benevolent sexism and the antisocial nature of hostile sexism: Is benevolent sexism more likely to manifest in public contexts and hostile sexism in private contexts? International Journal of Psychology,50(5), 363-371.
[26]	Christopher J. C., Wendt D. C., Marecek J., & Goodman D. M . (2014). Critical cultural awareness: Contributions to a globalizing psychology. American Psychologist,69(7), 645-655. doi: 10.1037/a0036851
[27]	Connelly K. &Heesacker M., (2012). Why is benevolent sexism appealing? Associations with system justification and life satisfaction. Psychology of Women Quarterly,36(4), 432-443.
[28]	Connor R. A., Glick P.; & Fiske S. T. , (2018). Ambivalent sexism in the twenty-first century. In C. G. Sibley & F. K. Barlow (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the psychology of prejudice.Cambridge,England: Cambridge University Press.
[29]	Dardenne B., Dumont M., & Bollier T . (2007). Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women’s performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,93(5), 764-779.
[30]	Eagly A.., &Wood W., (2011). Feminism and the evolution of sex differences and similarities. Sex Roles,64(9-10), 758-767. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-9949-9
[31]	Eagly A. H., Eaton A., Rose S. M., Riger S., & Mchugh M. C . (2012). Feminism and psychology analysis of a half-century of research on women and gender. American Psychologist,67(3), 211-230. doi: 10.1037/a0027260
[32]	Glick P. &Fiske S.T . (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,70(3), 491-512.
[33]	Glick P., Diebold J., Baileywerner B., & Zhu L . (1997). The two faces of adam: Ambivalent sexism and polarized attitudes toward women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,23(12), 1323-1334.
[34]	Glick P. &Fiske S.T . (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist,56(2), 109-118.
[35]	Glick P., Fiske S. T., Mladinic A., Saiz J. L., Abrams D., & Masser B., …L6pez W. L . (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,79(5), 763-75.
[36]	Glick P., Lameiras M., & Castro Y. R . (2002). Education and catholic religiosity as predictors of hostile and benevolent sexism toward women and men. Sex Roles,47(9-10), 433-441. doi: 10.1023/A:1021696209949
[37]	Good J.., &Rudman L.A . (2010). When female applicants meet sexist interviewers: The costs of being a target of benevolent sexism. Sex Roles,62(7-8), 481-493. doi: 10.1007/s11199-009-9685-6
[38]	Grubbs J. B., Exline J. J., & Twenge J. M . (2014). Psychological entitlement and ambivalent sexism: Understanding the role of entitlement in predicting two forms of sexism. Sex Roles,70(5-6), 209-220. doi: 10.1007/s11199-014-0360-1
[39]	Hammond M.., &Sibley C.G . (2011). Why are benevolent sexists happier? Sex Roles,65 332-343.
[40]	Hammond M. D., Milojev P., Huang Y., & Sibley C. G . (2018). Benevolent sexism and hostile sexism across the ages. Social Personality and Psychological Science,9(7), 863-874.
[41]	Hammond M.., &Overall N.C . (2015). Benevolent sexism and support of romantic partner's goals: Undermining women's competence while fulfilling men's intimacy needs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,41(9), 1180-1194.
[42]	Hammond M. D., Overall N. C., & Cross E. J . (2016). Internalizing sexism within close relationships: Perceptions of intimate partners' benevolent sexism promote women's endorsement of benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,110(2), 214-238.
[43]	Hammond M.., &Overall N.C . (2017). Dynamics within intimate relationships and the causes, consequences, and functions of sexist attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science,26(2), 120-125.
[44]	Hideg I. &Ferris D.L . (2016). The compassionate sexist? How benevolent sexism promotes and undermines gender equality in the workplace. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,111(5), 706-727.
[45]	Jackman M. R. (1994). The velvet glove:Paternalism and conflict in gender, class, and race relations.Berkeley, CA:University of California Press.
[46]	Jost J.., &Kay A.C . (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,88(3), 498-509.
[47]	King E. B., Botsford W., Hebl M. R., Kazama S., Dawson J. F., & Perkins A . (2012). Benevolent sexism at work: Gender differences in the distribution of challenging developmental experiences. Journal of Management,38(6), 1835-1866. doi: 10.1177/0149206310365902
[48]	Kilianski S.., &Rudman L.A . (1998). Wanting it both ways: Do women approve of benevolent sexism? Sex Roles,39(5-6), 333-352.
[49]	Kosakowska-Berezecka N., Jurek P., Besta T., & Badowska S . (2017). Self-presentation strategies, fear of success and anticipation of future success among university and high school students. Frontiers in Psychology,8 1884. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01884
[50]	Leicht C., Gocłowska M. A., Van Breen J. A., De Lemus. S., & de Moura G. R (2017). Counter-stereotypes and feminism promote leadership aspirations in highly identified women. Frontiers in Psychology,8 883. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00883
[51]	Lipowska M., Lipowski M., & Pawlicka P . (2016). “Daughter and son: A completely different story”? Gender as a moderator of the relationship between sexism and parental attitudes. Health Psychology Report,4(3), 224-236.
[52]	Macleod C., Marecek J., & Capdevila R . (2014). Feminism & psychology going forward. Feminism and Psychology,24(1), 3-17.
[53]	Masser B.., &Abrams D., (2004). Reinforcing the glass ceiling: The consequences of hostile sexism for female managerial candidates. Sex Roles,51(9-10), 609-615. doi: 10.1007/s11199-004-5470-8
[54]	Mosso C., Briante G., Aiello A., & Russo S . (2013). The role of legitimizing ideologies as predictors of ambivalent sexism in young people: Evidence from Italy and the USA. Social Justice Research,26(1), 1-17. doi: 10.1007/s11211-012-0172-9
[55]	Moya M., Glick P., Expósito F., de Lemus S., & Hart J . (2007). It’s for your own good: Benevolent sexism and women’s reactions to protectively justified restrictions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,33(10), 1421-1434.
[56]	Montañés P., Lemus S., Bohner G., Megías J. L., Moya M., & Garcia-Retamero R . (2012). Intergenerational transmission of benevolent sexism from mothers to daughters and its relation to daughters’ academic performance and goals. Sex Roles,66(7-8), 468-478. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-0116-0
[57]	Negrin L. (2002). Cosmetic surgery and the eclipse of identity. Body & Society,8(4), 21-42.
[58]	O’Neil D. A., Hopkins M. M., & Bilimoria D . (2008). Women’s careers at the start of the 21st century: Patterns and paradoxes. Journal of Business Ethics,80(4), 727-743. doi: 10.1007/s10551-007-9465-6
[59]	Overall N. C.&Hammond M.D . (2018). How intimate relationships contribute to gender inequality: Sexist attitudes encourage women to trade-off career success for relationship security. Policy Insights From Behavioral and Brain Sciences,5(1), 40-48.
[60]	Patton W. &Mcmahon M., (2014). Career Development and Systems Theory: Connecting Theory and Practice (3nd ed).Boston:Sense Publishers.
[61]	Radke H. R. M., Hornsey M. J., & Barlow F. K . (2018). Changing versus protecting the status quo: Why men and women engage in different types of action on behalf of women. Sex Roles, 79( 9-10), 505-518.
[62]	Roets A., Hiel A. V., & Dhont K . (2012). Is sexism a gender issue? A motivated social cognition perspective on men's and women's sexist attitudes toward own and other gender. European Journal of Personality,26(3), 350-359. doi: 10.1002/per.843
[63]	Rollero C. &Fedi A., (2014). When benevolence harms women and favours men: The effects of ambivalent sexism on leadership aspiration. Ceskoslovenská Psychologie,58(6), 535-542.
[64]	Shnabel N., Baranan Y., Kende A., Bareket O., & Lazar Y . (2016). Help to perpetuate traditional gender roles: Benevolent sexism increases engagement in dependency-oriented cross-gender helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,110(1), 55-75.
[65]	Sibley C.., &Wilson M.S . (2004). Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexist attitudes toward positive and negative sexual female subtypes. Sex Roles,51(11-12), 687-696. doi: 10.1007/s11199-004-0718-x
[66]	Sischo L. &Martin P.Y . (2015). The price of femininity or just pleasing myself? Justifying breast surgery. Gender Issues,32(2), 77-96.
[67]	The World Economic Forum . (2018). The global gender gap report 2018. Retrieved December 17, 2018, from
[68]	Von Baeyer C. L., Sherk D. L., & Zanna M. P . (1981). Impression management in the job interview: When the female applicant meets the male (chauvinist) interviewer. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,7(1), 45-51.