赌博游戏中的near-miss效应

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01689

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

near-miss效应是指在赌博中, 与一般的输钱和赢钱相比, “几乎赢(near-miss)”的输钱会诱发个体更高的生理唤醒和更强的赌博动机, 从而导致个体持续赌博的一种现象, 是导致赌博成瘾的主要诱因之一。针对这种现象的研究范式大致有三种：老虎机/类老虎机任务、轮盘任务和刮刮乐彩票任务。这种现象的理论解释目前主要有认知曲解假说、控制幻觉理论和受挫假说。near-miss效应的脑机制和病理研究才刚刚起步, 所涉及到的脑功能区域主要包括脑岛、腹侧纹状体等。未来的研究应在near-miss效应发生机制的理论模型建构、研究范式多样化、研究技术多模态化、病理机制和临床干预等方面进一步展开。

关键词: near-miss效应, 认知曲解假说, 控制幻觉理论, 受挫假说, 脑岛, 腹侧纹状体

Abstract:

The near-miss effect refers to a phenomenon that near-miss losses can elicit individuals’ higher physiological arousal and stronger gambling motivation than full-miss losses and winnings, which could lead to gambling persistence of gamblers. Researches on the near-miss effect have important theoretical value for understanding the cognitive and neural mechanisms of dynamic outcome evaluation in decision-making processes and shedding light on the mechanisms of pathological gambling. Studies have found convergent evidence that near-miss losses have motivationally enhancing properties. However, the cognitive and neural mechanisms of the near-miss effect are still under debate. In addition, the role that the near-miss effect played in pathological gambling is still unclear. At present, there are three main theoretical explanations for the near-miss effect: the cognitive misrepresentation hypothesis, the illusion of control theory, and the frustration hypothesis. The neural correlates of the near-miss effect mainly involve the insula and ventral striatum. Future researches should further explore the theoretical models of the near-miss effect, improve the experimental paradigm, various research methods, and examine the effect in pathological populations.

Key words: near-miss effect, the cognitive misrepresentation hypothesis, the illusion of control theory, the frustration hypothesis, insula, ventral striatum

中图分类号:

B849:C91

索涛, 杨雁, 范增, 王梦梦, 赵国祥. (2018). 赌博游戏中的near-miss效应. 心理科学进展 , 26(9), 1689-1699.

Tao SUO, Yan YANG, Zeng FAN, Mengmeng WANG, Guoxiang ZHAO. (2018). The near-miss effect in gambling games. Advances in Psychological Science, 26(9), 1689-1699.

参考文献

1	李健, 戴西件, 廖婷, 龚洪翰 . ( 2015). 岛叶解剖及功能区域分化和整合的研究进展. 实用放射学杂志,31( 6), 1026-1028
2	索涛, 冯廷勇, 贾世伟, 李红 . ( 2009). 决策失利后情绪的接近性效应与ERP证据. 中国科学C辑: 生命科学, 39( 6), 611-620.
3	Alicart H., Cucurell D., Mas-Herrero E., & Marco-Pallaré J. ( 2015). Human oscillatory activity in near-miss events. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10( 10), 1405-1412.
4	Barton K. R., Yazdani Y., Ayer N., Kalvapalle S., Brown S., Stapleton J., .. Harrigan K. A. ( 2017). The effect of losses disguised as wins and near misses in electronic gaming machines: A systematic review. Journal of Gambling Studies, 33( 4), 1241-1260.
5	Belisle, J., & Dixon, M. R. ( 2016). Near misses in slot machine gambling developed through generalization of total wins. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32( 2), 689-706.
6	Bernat E. M., Malone S. M., Williams W. J., Patrick C. J., & Iacono W. G. ( 2007). Decomposing delta, theta, and alpha time-frequency ERP activity from a visual oddball task using PCA . International Journal of Psychophysiology, 64( 1), 62-74.
7	Billieux J., Van der Linden M., Khazaal Y., Zullino D., & Clark L. ( 2012). Trait gambling cognitions predict near-miss experiences and persistence in laboratory slot machine gambling. British Journal of Psychology, 103( 3), 412-427.
8	Bunzeck N., Guitart-Masip M., Dolan R.J., & Düzel E. ( 2011). Contextual novelty modulates the neural dynamics of reward anticipation. Journal of Neuroscience, 31( 36), 12816-12822.
9	Byrne, R. M. J. ( 2016). Counterfactual thought. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 135-157.
10	Cavanagh, J. F., & Frank, M. J. ( 2014). Frontal theta as a mechanism for cognitive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18( 8), 414-421.
11	Cavanagh J. F., Frank M. J., Klein T. J., & Allen, J. J. B. ( 2010). Frontal theta links prediction errors to behavioral adaptation in reinforcement learning. Neuroimage, 49( 4), 3198-3209.
12	Chase, H. W., & Clark, L. ( 2010). Gambling severity predicts midbrain response to near-miss outcomes. Journal of Neuroscience, 30( 18), 6180-6187.
13	Christie, G. J., & Tata, M. S. ( 2009). Right frontal cortex generates reward-related theta-band oscillatory activity. NeuroImage, 48( 2), 415-422.
14	Chua H. F., Gonzalez R., Taylor S. F., Welsh R. C., & Liberzon I. ( 2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. Neuroimage, 47( 4), 2031-2040.
15	Clark L., Crooks B., Clarke R., Aitken M. R., & Dunn B. D. ( 2012). Physiological responses to near-miss outcomes and personal control during simulated gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 28( 1), 123-137.
16	Clark L., Lawrence A. J., Astley-Jones F., & Gray N. ( 2009). Gambling near-misses enhance motivation to gamble and recruit win-related brain circuitry. Neuron, 61( 3), 481-490.
17	Clark, L., & Limbrick-Oldfield, E. H. ( 2013). Disordered gambling: a behavioral addiction. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23( 4), 655-659.
18	Clark L., Liu R., McKavanagh R., Garrett A., Dunn B. D., & Aitken, M. R. F. ( 2013). Learning and Affect Following Near‐Miss Outcomes in Simulated Gambling. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 26( 5), 442-450.
19	Clark L., Studer B., Bruss J., Tranel D., & Bechara A. ( 2014). Damage to insula abolishes cognitive distortions during simulated gambling. PNAS, 111( 16), 6098-6103.
20	Contreras M., Ceric F., & Torrealba F. ( 2007). Inactivation of the interoceptive insula disrupts drug craving and malaise induced by lithium. Science, 318( 5850), 655-658.
21	Côté D., Caron A., Aubert J., Desrochers V., & Ladouceur R. ( 2003). Near wins prolong gambling on a video lottery terminal . Journal of Gambling Studies, 19( 4), 433-438.
22	Dixon M. J., Harrigan K. A., Jarick M., MacLaren V., Fugelsang, J. A. & Sheepy, E. ( 2011). Psychophysiological arousal signatures of near-misses in slot machine play. International Gambling Studies, 11( 3), 393-407.
23	Dixon M. J., MacLaren V., Jarick M., Fugelsang J. A., & Harrigan K. A. ( 2013). The frustrating effects of just missing the jackpot: Slot machine near-misses trigger large skin conductance responses, but no post-reinforcement pauses. Journal of Gambling Studies, 29( 4), 661-674.
24	Dixon, M. R., & Schreiber, J. E. ( 2004). Near-miss effects on response latencies and win estimations of slot machine players. The Psychological Record, 54( 3), 335-348.
25	Doñamayor N., Marco-Pallarés J., Heldmann M., Schoenfeld M. A., & Münte T. F. ( 2011). Temporal dynamics of reward processing revealed by magnetoencephalography. Human Brain Mapping, 32( 12), 2228-2240.
26	Downar J., Blumberger D. M., & Daskalakis Z. J. ( 2016). The neural crossroads of psychiatric illness: an emerging target for brain stimulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20( 2), 107-120.
27	Dymond S., Lawrence N. S., Dunkley B. T., Yuen K. S. L., Hinton E. C., Dixon M. R., .. Singh K.D. ( 2014). Almost winning: Induced MEG theta power in insula and orbitofrontal cortex increases during gambling near-misses and is associated with BOLD signal and gambling severity. NeuroImage, 91, 210-219.
28	Epstude, K., & Roese, N. J. ( 2008). The functional theory of counterfactual thinking. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12( 2), 168-192.
29	Gehring, W. J., & Willoughby, A. R. ( 2002). The medial frontal cortex and the rapid processing of monetary gains and losses. Science, 295( 5563), 2279-2282.
30	Goodkind M., Eickhoff S. B., Oathes D. J., Jiang Y., Chang A., Jones-Hagata L. B., … Etkin A. ( 2015). Identification of a common neurobiological substrate for mental illness. JAMA psychiatry, 72( 4), 305-315.
31	Goudriaan A. E., Oosterlaan J., de Beurs E., & Van den Brink, W. ( 2004). Pathological gambling: a comprehensive review of biobehavioral findings. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28( 2), 123-141.
32	Griffiths, M. ( 1991). Psychobiology of the near-miss in fruit machine gambling. The Journal of psychology, 125( 3), 347-357.
33	Griffiths, M. ( 1995). Scratch-card gambling: A potential addiction? Education and Health, 13( 2), 17-20.
34	Habib, R., & Dixon, M. R. ( 2010). Neurobehavioral evidence for the ‘‘near-miss’’ effect in pathological gamblers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 93( 3), 313-328.
35	Hajcak G., Moser J. S., Holroyd C. B., & Simons R. F. ( 2007). It’s worse than you thought: The feedback negativity and violations of reward prediction in gambling tasks . Psychophysiology, 44( 6), 905-912.
36	Harrigan, K. A. ( 2009). Slot machines: Pursuing responsible gaming practices for virtual reels and near misses. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 7( 1), 68-83.
37	Hodgins D. C., Stea J. N., & Grant J. E. ( 2011). Gambling disorders. The Lancet, 378( 9806), 1874-1884.
38	Hoeck N. V., Ma N., Ampe L., Baetens K., Vandekerckhove M., & Overwalle F. V. ( 2013). Counterfactual thinking: an fMRI study on changing the past for a better future. Social Cognitive & Affective Neuroscience, 8( 5), 556-564.
39	Holroyd, C. B., & Coles, M. G. H. ( 2002). The neural basis of human error processing: Reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity. Psychological Review, 109( 4), 679-709.
40	Holroyd C. B., Nieuwenhuis S., Yeung N., Nystrom L., Mars R. B., Coles M. G. H., & Cohen J. D. ( 2004). Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex shows fMRI response to internal and external error signals. Nature neuroscience, 7( 5), 497-498.
41	Hommer D. W., Bjork J. M., & Gilman J. M. ( 2011). Imaging brain response to reward in addictive disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1216( 1), 50-61.
42	Jessup, R. K., & O'Doherty, J. P. ( 2011). Human dorsal striatal activity during choice discriminates reinforcement learning behavior from the gambler's fallacy. Journal of Neuroscience, 31( 17), 6296-6304.
43	Kreussel L., Hewig J., Kretschmer N., Hecht H., Coles M. G. H., & Miltner, W. H. R. ( 2013). How bad was it? Differences in the time course of sensitivity to the magnitude of loss in problem gamblers and controls. Behavioural Brain Research, 247, 140-145.
44	Larche C. J., Musielak N., & Dixon M. J. ( 2017). The Candy Crush Sweet Tooth: How ‘Near-misses’ in Candy Crush Increase Frustration, and the Urge to Continue Gameplay. Journal of gambling studies, 33( 2), 599-615.
45	Levens S. M., Larsen J. T., Bruss J., Tranel D., Bechara A., & Mellers B. A. ( 2014). What might have been? The role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and lateral orbitofrontal cortex in counterfactual emotions and choice. Neuropsychologia, 54, 77-86.
46	Liu X., Hairston J., Schrier M., & Fan J. ( 2011). Common and distinct networks underlying reward valence and processing stages: a meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35( 5), 1219-1236.
47	Lole L., Gonsalvez C. J., & Barry R. J. ( 2015). Reward and punishment hyposensitivity in problem gamblers: A study of event-related potentials using a principal components analysis. Clinical Neurophysiology, 126( 7), 1295-1309.
48	Lole L., Gonsalvez C. J., Barry R. J., & De Blasio, F. M. ( 2013). Can event-related potentials serve as neural markers for wins, losses, and near-wins in a gambling task? A principal components analysis. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 89( 3), 390-398.
49	Luo Q., Wang Y., & Qu C. ( 2011). The near-miss effect in slot-machine gambling: modulation of feedback-related negativity by subjective value. Neuroreport, 22(#18), 989-993.
50	MacLin O. H., Dixon M. R., Daugherty D., & Small S. L. ( 2007). Using a computer simulation of three slot machines to investigate a gambler’s preference among varying densities of near-miss alternatives. Behavior Research Methods, 39( 2), 237-241.
51	Mas-Herrero, E., & Marco-Pallarés, J. ( 2014). Frontal theta oscillatory activity is a common mechanism for the computation of unexpected outcomes and learning rate. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26( 3), 447-458.
52	Murty V. P., Stanek J. K., & Heusser A. C. ( 2013). Representations of distinct salience signals in the nucleus accumbens. Journal of Neuroscience, 33( 39), 15319-15320.
53	Namkung H., Kim S. H., & Sawa A. ( 2017). The insula: an underestimated brain area in clinical neuroscience, psychiatry, and neurology. Trends in Neurosciences, 40( 4), 200-207.
54	Naqvi, N. H., & Bechara, A. ( 2009). The hidden island of addiction: the insula. Trends in neurosciences, 32( 1), 56-67.
55	Naqvi N. H., Rudrauf D., Damasio H., & Bechara A. ( 2007). Damage to the insula disrupts addiction to cigarette smoking. Science, 315( 5811), 531-534.
56	Nastally, B. L., & Dixon, M. R. ( 2012). The effect of a brief acceptance and commitment therapy intervention on the near-miss effect in problem gamblers. The Psychological Record, 62( 4), 677-690.
57	Nieuwenhuis S., Aston-Jones G., & Cohen J. D. ( 2005). Decision making, the P3, and the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system. Psychological Bulletin, 131( 4), 510-532.
58	Nieuwenhuis S., Holroyd C. B., Mol N., & Coles, M. G. H. ( 2004). Reinforcement-related brain potentials from medial frontal cortex: Origins and functional significance. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28( 4), 441-448.
59	Peters H., Hunt M., & Harper D. ( 2010). An animal model of slot machine gambling: The effect of structural characteristics on response latency and persistence. Journal of Gambling Studies, 26( 4), 521-531.
60	Polich, J. ( 2012). Neuropsychology of P300. In E. S. Kappenman, & S. J. Luck (Eds.), Oxford handbook of event-related potential components (pp. 159-188). Oxford Universiy Press.
61	Qi S., Ding C., Song Y., & Yang D. ( 2011). Neural correlates of near-misses effect in gambling. Neurosci. Lett., 493( 3), 80-85.
62	Reid, R. L. ( 1986). The psychology of the near miss. Journal of Gambling Behaviour, 2( 1), 32-39.
63	Roese, N. J. ( 1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121( 1), 133-148.
64	Roese, N. J., & Epstude, K. ( 2017). The functional theory of counterfactual thinking: New evidence, new challenges, new insights. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 1-79.
65	Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. ( 1995). Outcome controllability and counterfactual thinking. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21( 6), 620-628.
66	Schultz, W. ( 2006). Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 87-115.
67	Sescousse G., Janssen L. K., Hashemi M. M., Timmer M. H., Geurts D. E., & ter Huurne, N. P., et al. ( 2016). Amplified striatal responses to near-miss outcomes in pathological gamblers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41( 10), 2614-262.
68	Shao R., Read J., Behrens T. E. J., & Rogers R. D. ( 2013). Shifts in reinforcement signalling while playing slot-machines as a function of prior experience and impulsivity. Translational Psychiatry, 3, e213.
69	Sharman S., Aitken M. R., & Clark L. ( 2015). Dual effects of ‘losses disguised as wins’ and near-misses in a slot machine game. International Gambling Studies, 15( 2), 212-223.
70	Sharman, S., & Clark, L. ( 2016). Mixed emotions to near-miss outcomes: A psychophysiological study with facial electromyography. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32( 3), 823-834.
71	Stange M., Grau M., Osazuwa S., Graydon C., & Dixon M. J. ( 2017). Reinforcing small wins and frustrating near-misses: Further investigation into scratch card gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 33( 1), 47-63.
72	Stange M., Graydon C., & Dixon M. J. ( 2016). “I was that close”: Investigating players’ reactions to losses, wins, and near-misses on scratch cards. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32( 1), 187-203.
73	Stange M., Graydon C., & Dixon M. J. ( 2017). Increased urge to gamble following near-miss outcomes may drive purchasing behaviour in scratch card gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 33( 3), 867-879.
74	Tang D. W., Fellows L. K., Small D. M., & Dagher A. ( 2012). Food and drug cues activate similar brain regions: a meta-analysis of functional MRI studies. Physiology & Behavior, 106( 3), 317-324.
75	Tremblay L., Worbe Y. , & Hollerman, J. R.( 2009) . The ventral striatum: a heterogeneous structure involved in reward processing, motivation and decision-making. In Handbook of Reward and Decision Making. (pp 51-77). New York: Academic Press.
76	Ulrich, N., & Hewig, J. ( 2014). A miss is as good as a mile? Processing of near and full outcomes in a gambling paradigm. Psychophysiology, 51( 9), 819-823.
77	van Holst R. J., Chase H. W., & Clark L. ( 2014). Striatal connectivity changes following gambling wins and near-misses: Associations with gambling severity. NeuroImage: Clinical, 5, 232-239.
78	van Holst R. J., van den Brink W., Veltman D. J., & Goudriaan A. E. ( 2010). Why gamblers fail to win: a review of cognitive and neuroimaging findings in pathological gambling. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34( 1), 87-107.
79	Winstanley C. A., Cocker P. J., & Rogers R. D. ( 2011). Dopamine modulates reward expectancy during performance of a slot machine task in rats: Evidence for a ‘near-miss’ effect. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 913-925.
80	Worhunsky P. D., Malison R. T., Rogers R. D., & Potenza M. N. ( 2014). Altered neural correlates of reward and loss processing during simulated slot-machine fMRI in pathological gambling and cocaine dependence. Drug and alcohol dependence, 145, 77-86.
81	Wu Y., van Dijk E., Li H., Aitken M., & Clark L. ( 2017). On the counterfactual nature of gambling near-misses: an experimental study. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 30( 4), 855-868.
82	Wu, Y., & Zhou, X. L. ( 2009). The P300 and reward valence, magnitude, and expectancy in outcome evaluation. Brain Research, 1286, 114-122.
83	Yeung, N., & Sanfey, A. G. ( 2004). Independent coding of reward magnitude and valence in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 24( 28), 6258-6264.
84	Zaehle T., Bauch E. M., Hinrichs H., Schmitt F. C., Voges J., Heinze H. J., & Bunzeck N. ( 2013). Nucleus accumbens activity dissociates different forms of salience: evidence from human intracranial recordings. Journal of Neuroscience, 33( 20), 8764-8771.
85	Zeighami, Y., & Moustafa, A. A. ( 2015). Differential functions of ventral and dorsal striatum. Brain, 138( 10), e381.

[1]	贺馨宇, 何清华. 脑岛在成瘾中的结构和功能异常[J]. 心理科学进展, 2021, 29(8): 1438-1449.
[2]	傅于玲, 邓富民, 杨帅, 徐玖平. 舌尖上的“自虐”——食辣中的心理学问题[J]. 心理科学进展, 2018, 26(9): 1651-1660.
[3]	苏琳;杨周;Todd Jackson ;陈红;黄承志. 疼痛恐惧的形成及其对疼痛知觉的影响[J]. 心理科学进展, 2016, 24(8): 1228-1236.
[4]	冷冰冰, 王香玲, 高贺明, 李富洪. 内疚的认知和情绪活动及其脑区调控[J]. 心理科学进展, 2015, 23(12): 2064-2071.
[5]	丁毅;纪婷婷;邹文谦;刘燕;冉光明;陈旭. 物理温度向社会情感的隐喻映射：作用机制及其解释[J]. 心理科学进展, 2013, 21(6): 1133-1140.
[6]	罗艺;封春亮;古若雷;吴婷婷;罗跃嘉. 社会决策中的公平准则及其神经机制[J]. 心理科学进展, 2013, 21(2): 300-308.
[7]	艾春娣;汪宇;孟现鑫;赵玉芳;李红. 消费者心理神经科学研究简介[J]. 心理科学进展, 2013, 21(11): 2006-2015.
[8]	黄好;罗禹;冯廷勇;李红. 厌恶加工的神经基础[J]. 心理科学进展, 2010, 18(9): 1449-1457.