Chronic smoking may alter physiological systems involved in the stress response. This study was designed to examine the effects of ad libitum smoking and abstinence on adrenocortical and cardiovascular responses to acute psychological stress in dependent cigarette smokers. We evaluated differences among abstinent smokers, smokers who continued to smoke at their normal rate, and nonsmokers in salivary cortisol concentrations, systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), and mood reports. Measurements were obtained during rest and in response to acute psychological stress (public speaking) in one session (stress session) and during continuous rest in a control session. Thirty-eight smokers (21 women) and 32 nonsmokers (18 women) participated. Smokers were assigned to either abstain from smoking the night prior to and the day of each session, or to continue smoking at their normal rate before each session. All groups showed significant stress-induced changes in BP and HR. Smokers, regardless of their assigned condition, showed attenuated systolic BP responses to the public-speaking stressor when compared to nonsmokers. While resting cortisol levels were greater among smokers than nonsmokers, no cortisol response to the acute stressor was demonstrated in either ad libitum or abstinent smokers. These results indicate that chronic smoking diminishes adrenocortical and cardiovascular responses to stress, and that short-term abstinence does not correct these alterations.

Validated biological and psychological markers of acute stress in humans are an important tool in translational research. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), involving public interview and mental arithmetic performance, is among the most popular methods of inducing acute stress in experimental settings, and reliably increases hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation. However, although much research has focused on HPA axis activity, the TSST also affects the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system, the immune system, cardiovascular outputs, gastric function and cognition. We critically assess the utility of different biological and psychological markers, with guidance for future research, and discuss factors which can moderate TSST effects. We outline the effects of the TSST in stress-related disorders, and if these responses can be abrogated by pharmacological and psychological treatments. Modified TSST protocols are discussed, and the TSST is compared to alternative methods of inducing acute stress. Our analysis suggests that multiple readouts are necessary to derive maximum information; this strategy will enhance our understanding of the psychobiology of stress and provide the means to assess novel therapeutic agents.

ABSTRACT Reviews experimental research relating types of personal control to the experience of stress. 3 main types of personal control may be distinguished: (a) behavioral (direct action on the environment), (b) cognitive (the interpretation of events), and (c) decisional (having a choice among alternative courses of action). Each type of control is related to stress in a complex fashion, sometimes increasing it, sometimes reducing it, and sometimes having no influence at all. It may be generally said that the relationship of personal control to stress is primarily a function of the meaning of the control response for the individual, i.e., the stress-inducing or stress-reducing properties of personal control depend upon the nature of the response and the context in which it is embedded and not just upon its effectiveness in preventing or mitigating the impact of a potentially harmful stimulus. (66 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

An integrative, interdisciplinary approach is advocated to represent the reality of arousal regulation processes. This chapter describes the results from a multidisciplinary, integrative approach to the study of arousal regulation, integrating not only dispositional but also cognitive, physiological, and social dimensions. Arousal plays an important theoretical role in many categories of behavior amely, intense emotional experiences and expressions such as terror, rage, lust, and ecstasy. A major problem created by a unidimensional framework for arousal regulation is illustrated in the chapter and such arousal can be indexed by using subjective or objective measures such as stressfulness. The arousal-regulation processes operate in similar fashion for both genders. Moreover, an explanation for the gender effects in the zero-sum experimental game study and implications of work and chart future directions for empirical endeavors are also discussed in the chapter. A multidisciplinary biopsychosocial approach represents a much more fruitful approach for understanding arousal regulation.

Previous studies have shown that intranasally administered insulin exerts an inhibitory influence on the basal hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity. To date, however, it remains unclear as to whether intranasal insulin does furthermore affect HPA axis responsiveness in situations of stress. Here, we tested whether intranasally administered insulin attenuates the HPA axis response to psychosocial stress.Fifty minutes before being exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), 26 healthy young male participants received a single intranasal dose of human insulin (40 I.U.) or placebo in a placebo controlled, double-blind between-subject design. Plasma cortisol, saliva cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure were measured at resting baseline and in response to the TSST.Plasma cortisol (0202020202=02.05) and plasma cortisol (two-way ANOVA; treatment by time interaction: 02=02.05) response to the TSST without affecting heart rate, and blood pressure stress reactivity.Our data show that a single intranasal insulin administration effectively lowers stress-induced HPA axis responsiveness. Intranasal insulin may offer a therapeutic potential to prevent hyperactivity of the HPA system.

Abstract A growing number of animal data strongly suggest that a hyporeactive hypothalamus-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis may be pathologically significant by increasing the susceptibility to chronic inflammation. Following this line of evidence, the specific goal of the present study was to investigate the HPA axis in patients with atopic dermatitis (AD), a chronic allergic inflammatory disease. In addition, the sympathetic adrenomedullary (SAM) system as a second potent immunoregulatory and anti-inflammatory stress-response system has been examined. AD patients (n = 36) and nonatopic control subjects (n = 37) were exposed to a standardized laboratory stressor consisting of a free speech and mental arithmetic task in front of an audience. Cortisol, ACTH, and catecholamine concentrations were assessed before and after the stressor. To investigate feedback sensitivity of the HPA axis, a low dose (0.5 mg) dexamethasone suppression test was also performed. AD patients showed significantly attenuated cortisol and ACTH responses to the stressor, whereas catecholamine levels were significantly elevated in atopic patients. No difference between the experimental groups was found in basal cortisol and ACTH concentrations, whereas basal catecholamine levels were significantly elevated. Analysis of cortisol levels after dexamethasone treatment suggested an intact feedback sensitivity in AD sufferers at the pituitary level. The present findings suggest that patients with AD demonstrate a blunted HPA axis responsiveness with a concurrent overreactivity of the SAM system to psychosocial stress. Considering the important immunoregulatory role of the HPA axis and the SAM system, especially under stressful conditions, an aberrant responsiveness of these neuroendocrine systems may increase the susceptibility to (allergic) inflammation and may be one psychobiological mechanism of stress-related aggravation of the disease.

Psychological stress may increase an individual's vulnerability to mental and physical illness. This may be prevented if the individual receives social support in mastering the stressful situation in the form of cognitive guidance that compensates for the inevitable reduction in his problem-solving capacity caused by stress-induced emotional arousal. This guidance should also help the individual or compensate for this arousal and enable him to come to terms with inescapable changes in his life produced by the experience. Empirical researches confirm that exposure to high stress by individuals receiving adequate support does not increase the risk of mental and physical illness.

Social support is defined as information leading the subject to believe that he is cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual obligations. The evidence that supportive interactions among people are protective against the health consequences of life stress is reviewed. It appears that social support can protect people in crisis from a wide variety of pathological states: from low birth weight to death, from arthritis through tuberculosis to depression, alcoholism, and the social breakdown syndrome. Furthermore, social support may reduce the amount of medication required, accelerate recovery, and facilitate compliance with prescribed medical regimens.

Examines whether the positive association between social support and well-being is attributable more to an overall beneficial effect of support (main- or direct-effect model) or to a process of support protecting persons from potentially adverse effects of stressful events (buffering model). The review of studies is organized according to (1) whether a measure assesses support structure (the existence of relationships) or function (the extent to which one's interpersonal relationships provide particular resources) and (2) the degree of specificity (vs globality) of the scale. Special attention is given to methodological characteristics that are requisite for a fair comparison of the models. It is concluded that there is evidence consistent with both models. Evidence for the buffering model is found when the social support measure assesses the perceived availability of interpersonal resources that are responsive to the needs elicited by stressful events. Evidence for a main effect model is found when the support measure assesses a person's degree of integration in a large social network. Both conceptualizations of social support are correct in some respects, but each represents a different process through which social support may affect well-being. Implications for theories of social support processes and for the design of preventive interventions are discussed.

I examined the influence of cultural meaning systems on the perception of self among Japanese and American (United States) college students. Given the importance of social context to the Japanese self as compared with the U.S. self, I used two types of free-response format: the noncontextualized Twenty Statements Test (TST), and a contextualized questionnaire asking subjects to describe themselves in various situations. Consistent with prior research, on the TST, Japanese subjects listed fewer abstract, psychological attributes than did American subjects, referring more to social role and behavioral context. On the contextualized format, however, this trend was reversed. Japanese scored higher on abstract, psychological attributes than did Americans, who tended to qualify their self-descriptions. In addition, on the TST, Japanese surpassed Americans in the number of highly abstract, global self-references. Results point to the impact of divergent cultural conceptions of the person rather than differences in cognitive ability on the perception of self in these two cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Psychol Bull. 2004 May;130(3):355-91. Meta-Analysis; Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.; Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.

To derive the area under the curve and related summary measures of stress from saliva samples collected over time and to provide insight into the interpretation of the derived parameters. In research designed to assess the health consequences of stress these samples are often used as a physiologic indicator of the responsiveness of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. To make these repeated measurements of salivary cortisol more useful in defining the relationships between stress and health there is a need to derive two forms of area under the curve that summarize the measurements: area under the curve with respect to ground (AUC(G)) and area under the curve with respect to increase (AUC(I)). The latter parameters, AUC(I), however, is seldom used by research scientists. In this study, interpretation and generic definition of the area under the curve was provided through graphical analyses and examination of its association with other summary measures using data from the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) Pilot Study. In generic form, AUC(I) is derived as the area under the curve above the baseline value minus the area above the curve below the baseline value. The sign and magnitude of AUC(I) are related to the profile and the rate of change of the measurements over time. The parameter showed significant associations with other summary indicators that measure pattern or rate of change of the measurements over time. Principal components analyses revealed that summary parameters derived from repeated cortisol measurements can be grouped into two meaningful general categories: measures of the magnitude of response and measures of the pattern of response over time.

Given the social nature of many tasks involved in exploring and committing to a career, we hypothesized that social anxiety would correlate to exploration and commitment, even after controlling for general anxiety. We also hypothesized that self-construal and gender would interact with social anxiety in relation to exploration and commitment. In a sample of predominantly European American undergraduates ( n = 161), higher social anxiety associated with lower vocational commitment for both women and men, after accounting for general anxiety. For women, interdependence was also associated significantly with vocational commitment. Social anxiety correlated to environmental exploration only for men low in independence. Neither social anxiety nor self-construal associated with environmental exploration for women or foreclosure for either group.

心理性应激是个体内稳态受到社会心理威胁时候的状态,其反应水平可能会受到自我构念个体差异的影响.实验1通过问卷测量,结果发现个体的互依自我构念水平与日常应激水平呈显著正相关,而独立自我构念水平与日常应激水平相关不显著;实验2采用特里尔社会应激任务诱发心理性应激反应,使用文化启动范式作为缓冲策略,考察文化启动在自我构念水平与急性心理性应激反应之间的调节作用.结果发现在个人主义文化突显条件下,个体独立型自我得分越高,心理性应激水平越低.研究结果表明,高互依自我的个体会产生更高水平的应激反应;与自我构念相适应的策略可以有效缓解应激反应.

Objective: To evaluate the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of Self -construal Scale (SCS). Methods: SCS,Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale and General Social and Academic Hassles Scale for Students were conducted to 642 college students as subjects. Results: Factor analyses extracted 2 factors and accumulated variance was 52.1%. The SCS had satisfactory internal consistencies with Cronbach alpha between 0.518 to 0.743 and test-retest reliability was 0.85,0.79 to 0.83 after a month. The coefficients between two subscales and total scores of depression and stressors were -0.32 to 0.53. Conclusion: SCS is of good reliability and validity, but still needs modification of some items for further research.

One of the most robust ways that people protect themselves from social-evaluative threat is by emphasizing the desirability of their personal characteristics, yet the neural underpinnings of this fundamental process are unknown. The current fMRI study addresses this question by examining self-evaluations of desirability (in comparison with other people) as a response to threat. Participants judged how much personality traits described themselves in comparison with their average peer. These judgments were preceded by threatening or nonthreatening social-evaluative feedback. Self-evaluations made in response to threat significantly increased activation in a number of regions including the OFC, medial pFC, lateral pFC, amygdala, and insula. Individual differences in the extent to which threat increased desirability were significantly correlated with medial OFC activity. This is the first study to examine the neural associations of a fundamental self-protection strategy: responding to threat by emphasizing the self's desirability. Although neural research has separately examined self-evaluation processes from the regulation of social-evaluative threat, little is known about the interplay between the two. The findings build on this previous research by showing that regions, often associated with self-evaluation, are modulated by the degree to which people respond to threat by emphasizing their own desirability.

Abstract OBJECTIVE: Results from animal and human studies suggest that disregulations of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are involved in several behavioral, circulatory, endocrine, and immune disorders with clear-cut gender differences in disease prevalence. The aim of the present study was to investigate sex-specific HPA response patterns with a focus on the contribution of gonadal steroids as possible mediators. METHODS: A total of 81 healthy adults were investigated in the present study. Twenty men, 19 women in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, 21 women in the luteal phase, and 21 women using oral contraceptives (OC) were exposed to a brief psychosocial stress test (Trier Social Stress Test; TSST) and injected with 0.25 mg ACTH1-24 on consecutive days. Basal HPA activity was investigated by repeatedly measuring cortisol levels immediately after awakening, as well as in 30-minute intervals from 9:00 AM to 9:00 PM. Additionally, questionnaires were used to assess psychological state and trait parameters. RESULTS: Results show that the TSST induced significant increases in ACTH, salivary-free cortisol, total plasma cortisol, and heart rates, as well as increased wakefulness and reduced calmness in the total group. Significant group differences emerged for ACTH and salivary-free cortisol stress responses: Although men showed higher ACTH responses to the TSST compared with each of the three groups of women, salivary cortisol responses showed the following response pattern: Luteal = Men > Follicular = OC. The salivary cortisol responses to ACTH1-24 showed a similar response pattern: Luteal > Men > Follicular > OC. In contrast, total blood cortisol levels did not reveal any group difference between sexes or follicular versus luteal phase in either test. Although a similar salivary-free cortisol increase after awakening was found in the four groups, the circadian cortisol profile was significantly different throughout the first 4 hours of sampling. Questionnaire-derived psychological variables, as measured in the present study, could not explain the observed results. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that gender, menstrual cycle phase, and OC use exert important effects on HPA responsiveness to psychosocial stress in healthy subjects. Although men seem to have a stronger hypothalamic drive in response to stressful stimulation than women, differences in salivary-free cortisol levels, at least in part, may be explained by estradiol-induced changes in corticosteroid-binding protein levels. ACTH and cortisol secretion is not affected by OC use per se but the amount of bioavailable unbound cortisol ("free") is greatly reduced in this group of women after stimulation. Inasmuch as none of these differences between the study groups emerged in total blood cortisol levels, we strongly advocate for the simultaneous measurement of free and total cortisol levels in future studies on HPA functioning.

There is evidence showing that HPA axis responses to pharmacological provocation depend on time of day with larger cortisol responses in the afternoon and evening compared to the morning hours. However, it is still unknown whether HPA axis responses to psychological stress are affected by time of day and whether they can be assessed with equal reliability in the morning and afternoon, respectively.The present reanalysis is based on five independent studies conducted in the same laboratory by , , and and Schommer et al. (2003). All subjects were confronted with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) either in the morning or in the afternoon. The total sample consisted of 180 adults with 115 younger (49 females, 66 males) and 65 older adults (32 females, 33 males). All ANCOVA results controlled for possible age and gender effects. Stress-related free salivary cortisol, total plasma cortisol and ACTH net increases did not differ according to time of day (all = n.s.). However, as expected pre-stress free salivary and total plasma cortisol levels differed significantly between the morning and afternoon group (both = 0.02). Taken together, these observations suggest that the adrenal glands may be more sensitive to ACTH in the morning. Additionally, higher basal salivary cortisol levels were related to a lower stress-related net increase in salivary cortisol ( = 0.02), total plasma cortisol ( = 0.09). Stress-related heart rate increases did not differ between groups ( = n.s.). The finding that the TSST-induced mood change was differentially affected by time of day requires further exploration.We conclude that comparable HPA axis and heart rate stress responses to psychosocial stress can be measured in the morning and afternoon.

The present paper examines the neuroendocrine influences of aversive and reward incentives (noise and shock versus monetary bonuses) presented during reaction time tasks administered to 71 healthy men (ages 21 to 35) classified as being high (N = 30) or low (N = 41) in heart rate reactivity. High heart rate reactivity was defined as a peak heart rate increase or greater than 19 bpm to a cold pressor test administered on a different day. Independent groups of subjects worked on one of two visual reaction time tasks: either to avoid exposure to noise (115-dBA bursts) and shock (3.5 mV, 2 sec), or to earn monetary bonuses ($0.50). High heart rate reactors showed significant plasma rises from baseline both to aversive incentives and to reward, although they showed significant responses only during aversive incentives. In contrast, the low heart rate reactors were unresponsive in and during either type of incentive. These results support psychoendocrine models which view the response as being nonspecifically related to expenditure of effort regardless of the emotional connotations of the challenge, while is seen as being secreted primarily during periods of distress. The present data further suggest that cardiovascular reactivity is linked to neuroendocrine reactivity, possibly within the central nervous system.

It is suggested that perceptions of the self, of others, and of the relationship between self and others are very powerful and that this influence is clearly reflected in culture. The independent view of the self, represented in Western culture, is contrasted with the interdependent view in many other cultures. (SLD)

Massive evidence has now accumulated which indicates that the pituitary-adrenal cortical system responds sensitively to psychological influences. This evidence represents converging and reinforcing findings from diverse studies of many species, including man. It involved the use of many methods of eliciting, isolating, and evaluating emotional disturbances, relatively direct and specific biochemical measurements of endocrine activity, and control measures that permit exclusion of concomitant physical variab

Abstract This study tested an affect-specific explanation for the Asian and White American differences in depression and social anxiety. Construal of the self as independent or interdependent in relation to others (H. R. Markus & S. Kitayama, 1991) was hypothesized to be 1 possible way in which culture may be expressed in individuals' psychological functioning, which in turn was hypothesized to be linked specifically to social anxiety. College students (N = 348; 183 White Americans and 165 Asian Americans) completed self-report measures of depression, social anxiety, and self-construals. Asian Americans scored significantly higher than White Americans on measures of depression and social anxiety. When the covariance between depression and social anxiety was statistically controlled, ethnicity and self-construal variables were found, as predicted, to be associated with measures of social anxiety but not depression. These findings suggest a more differentiated perspective on the relations between culture, ethnicity, and emotional distress.

These results suggest that self-esteem is affecting the endocrine stress response. Furthermore, they indicate that the impact of this personality characteristic on the human cortisol stress response is also situation dependent. Inclusion of success and failure conditions turned out to be a crucial factor for revealing the role of self-esteem in endocrine stress responses. Future study designs should therefore include those variables, or assess subjective perception of success and failure, when investigating the role of personality differences in stress responses.

Study protocols in endocrinological research and the neurosciences often employ repeated measurements over time to record changes in physiological or endocrinological variables. While it is desirable to acquire repeated measurements for finding individual and group differences with regard to response time and duration, the amount of data gathered often represents a problem for the statistical analysis. When trying to detect possible associations between repeated measures and other variables, the area under the curve ( AUC) is routinely used to incorporate multiple time points. However, formulas for computation of the AUC are not standardized across laboratories, and existing differences are usually not presented when discussing results, thus causing possible variability, or incompatibility of findings between research groups. In this paper, two formulas for calculation of the area under the curve are presented, which are derived from the trapezoid formula. These formulas are termed ‘Area under the curve with respect to increase’ ( AUC I) and ‘Area under the curve with respect to ground’ ( AUC G). The different information that can be derived from repeated measurements with these two formulas is exemplified using artificial and real data from recent studies of the authors. It is shown that depending on which formula is used, different associations with other variables may emerge. Consequently, it is recommended to employ both formulas when analyzing data sets with repeated measures.

Physical activity has proven benefits for physical and psychological well-being and is associated with reduced responsiveness to physical stress. However, it is not clear to what extent physical activity also modulates the responsiveness to psychosocial stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the reduced responsiveness to physical stressors that has been observed in trained men can be generalized to the modulation of physiological and psychological responses to a psychosocial stressor. Twenty-two trained men (elite sportsmen) and 22 healthy untrained men were exposed to a standardized psychosocial laboratory stressor (Trier Social Stress Test). Adrenocortical (salivary free cortisol levels), autonomic (heart rate), and psychological responses (mood, calmness, anxiety) were repeatedly measured before and after stress exposure. In response to the stressor, cortisol levels and heart rate were significantly increased in both groups, without any baseline differences between groups. However, trained men exhibited significantly lower cortisol and heart rate responses to the stressor compared with untrained men. In addition, trained men showed significantly higher calmness and better mood, and a trend toward lower state anxiety during the stress protocol. On the whole, elite sportsmen showed reduced reactivity to the psychosocial stressor, characterized by lower adrenocortical, autonomic, and psychological stress responses. These results suggest that physical activity may provide a protective effect against stress-related disorders.

The psychoendocrine interpretation of the data stating that cortisol hypersecretion in subordinates occurs because of frequent stressors need not conflict with the neuroendocrine interpretation stating that the hypersecretion occurs because of blunting of feedback sensitivity. Prolonged or repeated stressors will elevate basal glucocorticoid concentrations and cause feedback resistance in rodents, primates, and humans. Such stressors can potentially down-regulate corticosteroid receptor numbers in various neural sites relevant to glucocorticoid feedback inhibition, blunting the efficacy with which those sites work, and producing the subsequent hypersecretion and feedback resistance. With time, the repeated Cortisol excursions cause a down-regulatory blunting of feedback sensitivity, resulting in elevated basal Cortisol concentrations and relative feedback resistance. The elevated basal Cortisol concentrations, the feedback resistance, and the underlying neuroendocrine mechanisms in low-ranking baboons echo some of the findings in biological psychiatry concerning neuroendocrine abnormalities in depression. Although social subordinance and depression bear some interesting similarities, they still represent two distinct routes toward altered adrenocortical function.

ABSTRACT Sociotropy and autonomy are two personality dimensions that relate to an individual's vulnerability to depression. Independent and interdependent self-construals are two distinctive cognitive formulations of the self derived from cross-cultural research. Both of these sets of constructs reflect self and other orientations. The purpose of the present study was to empirically examine the various factors that emerge when these two constructs are integrated. 652 participants responded to the Personal Style Inventory [Robins, C. J., Ladd, J., Welkowitz, J., Blaney, P. H., Diaz, R. & Kutcher, G. (1991). The Personal Style Inventory: Preliminary validation studies of new measures of sociotropy and autonomy. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 16, 277–300.], the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale [Clark, D. A. & Beck, A. T. (1991). Personality factors in dysphoria: A psychometric refinement of Beck's Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 13, 369–388.] and the Self-Construal Scale [Singelis, T. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580–591.]. Four factors emerged from a factor analysis conducted on the items of the three scales measuring sociotropy-autonomy and independent and interdependent self-construal. These four factors are discussed in the context of vulnerability to depression.

We examined temporal changes in salivary cortisol in response to a peer self-presentation task in a group of seven year-olds, some of whom scored high, average, and low on the Harter, 1983 Perceived Social Competence Scale. Salivary cortisol was measured pre-task, and 20 and 35 min post-task. We found a significant relation between individual differences in perceived social competence and salivary cortisol reactivity in response to the task. Children who perceived themselves as socially competent exhibited a significantly greater decrease in salivary cortisol from 20 to 35 min following the task compared with children who self-reported a relatively lower degree of social competence. We speculate on the meaning of salivary cortisol changes in childrens socio-emotional development.

In contrast to the substantial number of studies investigating the effects of stress on declarative memory, effects of stress on working memory have received less attention. We compared working memory (numerical -back task with single digits) in 40 men exposed either to psychosocial stress (Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)) or a control condition. Task difficulty was varied using two conditions (2-back vs. 3-back). Salivary cortisol (as a marker of hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) activity) and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA as a marker of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity) were assessed immediately before and three times after the stress or control condition. As expected stress resulted in an increase in cortisol, sAA, and negative affect. Subjects exposed to stress showed significant working memory impairments in both workload conditions. The analysis of variance indicated a main effect of stress for reaction time as well as accuracy. In addition, for reaction time a stress×block interaction occurred. Follow up tests revealed that only during the first block at each level of difficulty performance was significantly impaired by stress. Thus, the effects of stress became smaller the longer the task was performed. Results provide further evidence for impaired working memory after acute stress and illustrate the time course of this phenomenon.

Subjects received positive feedback on a practice anagram task and then performed a similar task in front of either an audience that was aware of their prior success or an audience that was unaware of their prior success. Two control conditions were included in which subjects performed alone after receiving positive feedback or performed alone without feedback. Results indicated subjects' task interest and performance increased under conditions in which they performed in front of unaware audiences. In addition, subjects' task interest and performance levels decreased in the presence of audiences that were aware of their prior success. These results point to an important role of audience awareness in setting performance standards and expectations. These findings are interpreted from a resource-investment analysis of task value and performance. Implications for surveillance in public settings and in the workplace (e.g., automated computer monitoring) are discussed.

Given links between interpersonal functioning and health as well as the dearth of truly interpersonal laboratory stressors, we present a live rejection paradigm, the Yale Interpersonal Stressor (YIPS), and examine its effects on mood, eating behavior, blood pressure, and cortisol in two experiments. The YIPS involves one or more interaction(s) between the participant and two same-sex confederates in which the participant is made to feel excluded and isolated. In Experiment 1, 50 female undergraduates were randomly assigned to the YIPS or a control condition. Participants in the YIPS condition experienced greater negative affect and less positive affect than did those in the control condition. Further, restrained eaters ate more following the YIPS than did nonrestrained eaters. In Experiment 2, 25 male and female undergraduates completed the YIPS. The YIPS induced significant increases in tension, systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) from baseline, while significantly decreasing positive affect. The YIPS appeared particularly relevant for women, resulting in significantly greater increases in cortisol and SBP for women compared to men. The YIPS, then, provides an alternative to traditional, achievement-oriented laboratory stressors and may allow for the identification of individuals most vulnerable to interpersonal stress.

ABSTRACT Presents a typology of control and reviews research that relates the 4 types of control (behavioral, cognitive, information, and retrospective) to reactions to aversive stimuli. After a review of theories relevant to this area, a unifying theme is presented. It is proposed that reactions to potentially stressful events depend on their meaning for the individual. Three dimensions of meaning are discussed: endurable vs unendurable, means to desirable outcomes vs no desirable outcomes, and planned vs random events. (68 ref)

ABSTRACT Much research has identified how people react to receiving threatening information about the self. The purpose of this article is to discuss such experiences in the context of a model of state self-esteem regulation. The authors propose that people engage in one of three regulatory responses to threat: compensation, resistance, and breaking. They conduct a meta-analysis aimed to examine when people engage in each of these three responses to threat and how trait self-esteem affects the selection and success of selecting each regulatory response. Furthermore, the authors test six theoretical models that might explain why responses to ego threat vary across level of trait self-esteem. The models for differences between people with low and high trait self-esteem that fit the data best suggest that (a) self-esteem serves as a resource and (b) there is a self-verification motivation.

特里尔社会应激测试（Trier Social Stress Test：TSST）是国外应用广泛的社会心理应激测试手段,然而还没有研究对其在中国的适用性进行报告。本研究以健康大学生为被试,分别采用主观应激报告（简明心境量表和5点量表）和客观应激参数（心率和唾液皮质醇）为指标,探讨TSST在中国的适用情况以及性别因素对个体在TSST应激情境中的影响。结果发现,TSST诱发了中国被试显著的应激反应,在经历了TSST情境后,被试主观报告紧张水平增加,同时心跳加速,唾液皮质醇水平增加。即使女性被试主观报告紧张与不安的程度显著高于男性,但是男性和女性在TSST应激情境下的心跳和唾液皮质醇指标没有差异。研究结果提示,TSST在中国被试中具有良好的适用性,可以利用其开展与社会心理应激相关的研究。男女被试在与成就动机相关的应激源（例如,TSST）中的客观应激参数差异不明显。

对自我构念、自我效能感、关系和谐以及主观幸福感之间的关系进行分析.以275名企业员工,事业单位人员以及公务员为被试进行问卷调查,使用回归以及结构方程模型的方法进行分析.结果发现：独立自我比互依自我对主观幸福感的预测作用显著更大；独立自我显著地正向预测生活满意度和积极情绪,对消极情绪的预测作用不显著；互依自我显著地正向预测积极情绪,对生活满意度和消极情绪的影响不显著；自我效能感、关系和谐分别在独立自我与主观幸福感、互依自我与主观幸福感之间起中介作用.