Abstract Three studies show that the retrieval process itself causes long-lasting forgetting. Ss studied 8 categories (e.g., Fruit). Half the members of half the categories were then repeatedly practiced through retrieval tests (e.g., Fruit Or_____). Category-cued recall of unpracticed members of practiced categories was impaired on a delayed test. Experiments 2 and 3 identified 2 significant features of this retrieval-induced forgetting: The impairment remains when output interference is controlled, suggesting a retrieval-based suppression that endures for 20 min or more, and the impairment appears restricted to high-frequency members. Low-frequency members show little impairment, even in the presence of strong, practiced competitors that might be expected to block access to those items. These findings suggest a critical role for suppression in models of retrieval inhibition and implicate the retrieval process itself in everyday forgetting.

Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) refers to the finding that selectively retrieving some information impairs subsequent memory for related but nonretrieved information. This occurs both for the individual doing the remembering (i.e., within-individual retrieval-induced forgetting: WI-RIF), as well as for individuals merely listening to those recollections (i.e., socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting: SS-RIF). In the present study, we examined how the contextual factors of age and emotion independently and interactively affect both WI-RIF and SS-RIF. The results indicated that both WI-RIF and SS-RIF occurred at equivalent levels, both for younger and older adults and for neutral and emotional information. However, we identified a boundary condition to this effect: People only exhibited SS-RIF when the speaker that they were listening to was of the same sex as themselves. Given that participants reported feeling closer to same-sex speakers, this suggests that people co-retrieve more, and therefore exhibit increased SS-RIF, with close others. In everyday life, these RIF effects should influence what information is remembered versus forgotten in individual and collective memories.

Retrieving a single-digit multiplication fact (3 4 =12) can slow response time (RT) for the corresponding addition fact (3+4=7). The present experiment investigated effects of problem type (i.e., tie addition problems such as 3+3 vs. non-ties such as 3+4) and cultural background on this retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) phenomenon in young adults. Canadians answering in English (n=36), Chinese adults answering in English (n=36), and Chinese answering in Chinese (n=36) received four blocks of multiplication practice and then two blocks of the addition counterparts and control additions. Tie addition problems presented a robust RIF effect that did not differ between groups, but only the Canadian group showed RIF for non-ties and only for small non-ties with sum 10 (3+4). The Chinese groups' RIF effect for addition ties, but not small non-ties, converges with recent evidence that ties are solved by direct memory retrieval whereas small non-ties may be solved by highly efficient procedural processes in skilled performers.

http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0749596X11000167

Positive trait information is typically better recalled than negative trait information when encoded in reference to the self, but not when encoded in reference to someone else or when processed for general meaning. This study examined whether this influence of affective meaning is modulated by retrieval conditions. Participants encoded positive and negative trait adjectives in reference to themselves or to a celebrity. They were then presented with either a free-recall task (Experiment 1) or a recognition memory task (Experiment 2). Positive adjectives were better recalled than negative adjectives, but only when they were encoded in reference to the self. In contrast, encoding condition and valence did not interact in the recognition memory task. Taken together, these findings suggest that the difference in memory between positive and negative self-referent information is due, at least in part, to a control exerted on memory retrieval.

People's self-images are grounded in autobiographical memories and, in particular, in the phenomenological experience associated with remembering. The desire to increase or maintain the positivity of the self-image (i.e., the self-enhancement motive) might thus play an important role in shaping memory phenomenology. This study examined this hypothesis by asking participants to recall positive and negative events that involve self-evaluations (i.e., pride and shame) and positive and negative events that involve evaluations about others (i.e., admiration and contempt); various phenomenological characteristics (e.g., sensory details, feeling of re-experiencing) were assessed using rating scales. The results show a positivity bias (i.e., subjectively remembering positive events with more details than negative events) for events that involve self-evaluations but not for events that involve evaluations of others. In addition, this bias was stronger for people high in self-esteem. It is concluded that biases affecting the phenomenology of autobiographical memory are part of the arsenal of psychological mechanisms people use to maintain a positive self-image.

Instinctively responding to maternal face is an evolutionary function of enhancing survival and development. However, because of the confounding nature of familiarity, little is known concerning the neural mechanism involved in maternal face recognition. We had a rare opportunity to examine Mosuo preschool children who were raised in a matrilineal society in which mothers and aunts represent equally familiar faces to the children. The participants were exposed to photographs of their mother's face, aunt's face, and an unfamiliar female's faces during electroencephalography (EEG) recording. The EEG results showed that the mother's face elicited a more negative N1 component, a larger left N170 component, and a larger P300 component; both the mother's and aunt's faces elicited a larger right N170 component. These results suggest that the emotional attachment between mother and child has neural ramifications across three successive face processing stages that are distinguished from the neural effects of facial familiarity.

(2017). Source memory that encoding was self-referential: the influence of stimulus characteristics. Memory. Ahead of Print. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1282517

心理人类学是心理学与人类学之间的跨界学科。文化与人格的研究一直是心理人类学的主题，但近些年来，这一主题发生了改变，文化与自我的研究开始占据了重要的地位。这一研究重心的转移不仅加深了对人类文化。人类心理行为及其相互关系的理解，而且开启了许多新的研究思路，

Our recent work showed that self-trait judgment is associated with increased activity in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) in non-religious Chinese, but in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC) in Chinese Christians. The current work further investigated neural substrates of self-referential processing in Chinese Buddhists. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we scanned 14 Chinese Buddhists, while they conducted trait judgments of the self, Zhu Rongji (the former Chinese premier), Sakyamuni (the Buddhist leader) and Jesus (the Christian leader). We found that, relative to Zhu Rongji judgment, self-judgment in Buddhist participants failed to generate increased activation in the VMPFC but induced increased activations in the DMPFC/rostral anterior cingulate cortex, midcingulate and the left frontal/insular cortex. Self-judgment was also associated with decreased functional connectivity between the DMPFC and posterior parietal cortex compared with Zhu Rongji judgment. The results suggest that Buddhist doctrine of No-self results in weakened neural coding of stimulus self-relatedness in the VMPFC, but enhanced evaluative processes of self-referential stimuli in the DMPFC. Moreover, self-referential processing in Buddhists is characterized by monitoring the conflict between the doctrine of No-self and self-focus thinking during self-trait judgment.

Human adults share ample experiences with their spouse and offspring. Do these experiences produce shared neural correlates of reflection on oneself and family members? We addressed this issue by scan

Christianity strongly encourages its believers to surrender to God and to judge the self from God's perspective. We used functional MRI to assess whether this religious belief is associated with neural correlates of self-referential processing distinct from that of non-religious people. Non-religious and Christian participants were scanned while performing tasks of personal-trait judgments regarding the self or public persons. We found that, while self-judgment was linked to better memory of traits related to the self than to others, self-referential processing induced increased activity in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) for non-religious participants but in the dorsal MPFC for Christian participants. In addition, the dorsal MPFC activity was positively correlated with the rating scores of the importance of Jesus judgment in subjective evaluation of a person's personality. Because the ventral and dorsal MPFC are respectively engaged in representation of stimulus self-relevance and evaluation of self-referential stimuli, our findings suggest that Christian beliefs result in weakened neural coding of stimulus self-relatedness but enhanced neural activity underlying evaluative processes applied to self-referential stimuli.

Retrieval of a memory can cause forgetting of other related memories. This phenomenon is known as retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). Previous studies have shown the results with respect to RIF of negative words were mixed, suggesting that it should be reconsidered. We used a stem-cued recall test to re-examine whether RIF occurs for negative words. A total of 30 undergraduate university students (11 male, 19 female) aged 19鈥22 years (M = 19.83, SD = 0.75) learned target words with neutral and negative emotionality. They then engaged in retrieval practice for half of the neutral and half of the negative targets by completing a word-fragment recall test. Finally a stem-cued recall test encompassing all studied targets was administered. The results of this test revealed that retrieval practice of neutral words caused forgetting of unpractised neutral words, but retrieval practice of negative words did not induce forgetting of unpractised negative words. We attribute the absence of RIF for negative words to baseline deflation or to integration, which were both generated by the inter-relationships between negative words. Further study is needed to clarify which factor, baseline deflation or integration, mainly influences the lack of RIF of negative words.

The present studies investigated whether similarity to the self influenced memory for impressions of others. We predicted that similarity to the self would facilitate impression memory for others, paralleling the self-reference effect found when information is processed relative to the self. We were interested in how the initial valence of the impression, whether positive or negative, affected impression memory. Across two experiments, participants formed impressions while viewing faces paired with traits and behaviors. After recognition, participants rated the self-descriptiveness of the studied traits allowing impression memory to be sorted into high-, medium-, and low-self-similarity. For positive impressions, similar others were remembered better than dissimilar others. For negative impressions, similar others were remembered more poorly than dissimilar others. These results illustrate that similarity to the self has multifaceted effects on person memory, leading to memory enhancement in the case of people given positive impressions, but reducing memory for people associated with negative impressions.

以深厚的民族文化为背景，以标准的英语书面亲属称谓为参照，以现代汉语标准书面亲属称谓为研讨对象，揭示汉语亲属称谓之文化性，即体现宗法观念的内、外二分性；划分上的细密性；功能上的整体性、外溢性，以及称谓活动中的求同性。

Western cultures encourage self-construals independent of social contexts, whereas East Asian cultures foster interdependent self-construals that rely on how others perceive the self. How are culturally specific self-construals mediated by the human brain? Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we monitored neural responses from adults in East Asian (Chinese) and Western (Danish) cultural contexts during judgments of social, mental and physical attributes of themselves and public figures to assess cultural influences on self-referential processing of personal attributes in different dimensions. We found that judgments of self vs a public figure elicited greater activation in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in Danish than in Chinese participants regardless of attribute dimensions for judgments. However, self-judgments of social attributes induced greater activity in the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) in Chinese than in Danish participants. Moreover, the group difference in TPJ activity was mediated by a measure of a cultural value (i.e. interdependence of self-construal). Our findings suggest that individuals in different sociocultural contexts may learn and/or adopt distinct strategies for self-reflection by changing the weight of the mPFC and TPJ in the social brain network.

Previous research has demonstrated that the act of remembering can prompt the temporary suppression of related items in memory—that is, retrieval-induced forgetting (Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, 1994). In extending work of this kind, the present research sought to identify some important boundary conditions of this effect. As expected, temporary forgetting was eliminated under task conditions that elicited distinctive encoding operations—specifically, when material was relevant to the self. This result is noteworthy since it identifies spontaneous processing operations that protect information from temporary forgetting, a finding that has important implications both for the emergence of this inhibitory effect in everyday life and for theoretical treatments of memory function.

情绪记忆的提取诱发遗忘研究是近年来记忆研究领域的热点问题,但是尚无一致的结果。在现实生活中,我们所面临的情绪事件十分复杂,不仅包含核心的情绪信息,还包括边缘非情绪信息,研究已发现,人们对于这些复杂情绪事件不同成分的记忆效果也不是完全相同的。本研究通过2个实验分别探讨提取练习整张复杂情绪图片和提取练习复杂情绪图片的背景成分时的提取诱发遗忘现象。结果表明:(1)无论提取练习完整信息还是相关的边缘信息,均在提取诱发遗忘中存在显著的情绪记忆权衡效应;(2)消极情绪项目像中性项目一样也能产生提取诱发遗忘效应;(3)不论提取图片的完整信息还是背景信息,都仅在中心项目上表现出提取诱发遗忘,边缘背景没有出现提取诱发遗忘。

It is suggested that perceptions of the self, of others, and of the relationship between self and others are very powerful and that this influence is clearly reflected in culture. The independent view of the self, represented in Western culture, is contrasted with the interdependent view in many other cultures. (SLD)

Where in the brain are the self and significant others (e.g. mother) represented? Neuroscientists have traced self-representation to the ventral medial prefrontal cortex for both Westerners and East Asians. However, significant others were represented alongside the self in the same brain area for East Asians but not for Westerners. In this experiment, Westernized bicultural Chinese were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging while performing trait judgments that referenced the self, mother, or a non-identified person (NIP) after Western or Chinese culture priming. Consistent with Western independent self-construals and Chinese interdependent self-construals, Western priming increased, whereas Chinese priming decreased the neural differentiation of mother and NIP from self.

In a study of bicultural individuals' self-perceptions, Chinese-born students were randomly assigned to participate in either Chinese or English. Serving as controls, Canadian-born participants of either European or Chinese descent participated in English. The effects of the language manipulation paralleled findings in previous studies comparing East Asians to North Americans. Participants responding in Chinese reported more collective self-statements in open-ended self-descriptions, lower self-esteem on the Rosenberg scale, and more agreement with Chinese cultural views than did the remaining groups. In their self-descriptions, participants writing in Chinese provided similar numbers of favorable and unfavorable self-statements. The other groups reported more favorable self-statements. Participants reporting in Chinese indicated similar levels of positive and negative mood. The remaining groups reported more positive mood. The results suggest that East-Asian and Western identities may be stored in separate knowledge structures in bicultural individuals, with each structure activated by its associated language.

Abstract How do individuals remember feedback that is inconsistent or negative? According to the inconsistency-negativity resolution model, individuals are motivated to reduce uncertainty and resolve inconsistency even when threat to self is potential. They more deeply process and better remember negative self- than other-referent information. According to the inconsistency-negativity neglect model, individuals are motivated to protect the self against threat. They engage in more shallow processing and remember less negative self- than other-referent information. Participants read and recalled either self- or other-referent mixed-valence information. The neglect model was supported in personality and minimal feedback settings. A chronometric exploration of processing mechanisms and the ruling out of a retrieval interference account clarified aspects of the model. Individuals are hypersensitive to threat potential: They will protect the self against even hypothetical threat.

This experiment was concerned with intralist retention of paired associates. On the basis of the observation that an item is practically always recalled immediately after its presentation and that its recall is less than perfect when other items are presented for learning (input) and attempted recall (output) in the intralist retention interval, two sources of intratrial interference, associated with the operations of inputting and outputting, were postulated as being responsible for the decreasing availability of the learned item in recall. An experimental design was used that permitted the separation, and the evaluation of the effects, of these two sources of interference. This was done by systematically varying the sequence in which list items were recalled. Each of 50 Ss learned 20 lists of ten paired associates under different conditions of input and output sequence on a single trial. The results can be summarized as follows. (1) In general, probability of recall of an individual item is greatly affected by the position of the item in the input and output sequence. (2) When the item in the last input position is recalled in the first output position, its retention is practically perfect. (3) The probabilities of recall of items under other combinations of input and output position vary considerably, in some cases being as low as .20. (4) The recall of items in early input positions is relatively little affected by their position in the output sequence. (5) The recall of items in late input positions decreases systematically with their position in the output sequence. These findings were evaluated in the light of the two hypothesized sources of intratrial interference. Apart from the finding of primacy effects igher recall of early input items than of middle input items he data seemed to reflect the operation of input and output interference. The previously reported findings that the shape of the serial position curve differs under conditions of serial and free recall were discussed in terms of the observed interaction between input and output position of individual items. Some implications of the findings for the problem of one-trial versus incremental learning of associations were also briefly mentioned.

ABSTRACT Research on memory has demonstrated that remembering material can cause forgetting of related information, which is known as retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). Macrae and Roseveare identified “self” as one of the boundary conditions of this effect in the Western cultural context, showing that RIF was eliminated when material was encoded to be related to the self (known as self-referential effect), but not to significant others. In this study, we predicted and found that significant others could be another boundary condition in Japanese cultural contexts in which self and agency are more interdependent or conjoint; RIF was observed neither under best-friend-related encoding nor under family-related encoding in Japan. The effect of significant others is found uniquely in Japanese cultural contexts, suggesting that the cultural model of self has significant power in the spontaneous system of memory.

Using fMRI, we studied the neural correlates of self-referential processing by comparing BOLD signal changes during self and mother conditions of a self-reference effect (SRE) task. Conjunction analysis of these two conditions showed several common areas of significant activation, including the medial aspects of the superior frontal gyri, left inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral temporal poles, left superior temporal sulcus and left precuneus. The locations of the 7 strongest peak activations for the self condition and for the mother condition were compared on a subject-by-subject basis in native space. Of the 119 pairs of peaks explored, 87% were located within 2 voxels of each other, demonstrating the commonality of the brain regions subserving both self- and mother-referential processing within an individual subject. In group analyses of the self-referential vs. mother-referential contrast, small differences in activation strength were observed in the left superior frontal sulcus, right cingulate gyrus and the left fusiform gyrus. Greater activation for mother than for self was observed in bilateral temporal lobes. Subjects also performed a social attribution task (SAT) in which they inferred mental states about interacting geometric shapes. Activations from this visual theory of mind task were compared with the activations demonstrated during self-referential processing. Striking similarities were found, including overlapping activations in bilateral medial prefrontal cortices, left inferior frontal gyrus and precuneus. These data suggest that reflective analysis of self, mother and abstract others relies predominantly on the same neural architecture.

We used a memory paradigm to test whether the nature of representations of the self within long-term memory differed as a function of cultural background. In Western samples words encoded in relation to the self are typically remembered better, and Euro-Canadian participants here showed this standard self-reference effect. However, Asian-Canadian participants were slower to recognize personal traits (as opposed to collective traits) when these traits had been encoded in reference to the self, suggesting a more elaborate representation of the collective self than the personal self in long-term memory. Further, memory was actually inhibited for Asian-Canadians when personal traits were encoded in reference to the self (vs. encoded with other referents). Differences in long-term memory trace strength for self-related data may emerge even as differences in the working self do not, and implications of this difference are discussed.

http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/doi/10.1093/scan/nsr002

Previous transcultural neuroimaging studies have shown that the neural substrates of self-reflection can be shaped by different cultures. There are few studies, however, on the neural activity of self-reflection where religion is viewed as a form of cultural expression. The present study examined the self-processing of two Chinese ethnic groups (Han and Tibetan) to investigate the significant role of religion on the functional anatomy of self-representation. We replicated the previous results in Han participants with the ventral medial prefrontal cortex and left anterior cingulate cortex showing stronger activation in self-processing when compared with other-processing conditions. However, no typical self-reference pattern was identified in Tibetan participants on behavioral or neural levels. This could be explained by the minimal subjective sense of 'I-ness0964 in Tibetan Buddhists. Our findings lend support to the presumed role of culture and religion in shaping the neural substrate of self.

An important question in social neuroscience is the similarities and differences in the neural representations between the self and close others. Most studies examining this topic have identified the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) region as the primary area involved in this process. However, several studies have reported conflicting data, making further investigation of this topic very important. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we investigated the brain activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) when Chinese participants passively listened to their self-name (SN), their mother name (MN), and unknown names (UN). The results showed that compared with UN recognition, SN perception was associated with a robust activation in a widely distributed bilateral network, including the cortical midline structure (the MPFC and ACC), the inferior frontal gyrus, and the middle temporal gyrus. The SN invoked the bilateral superior temporal gyrus in contrast to the MN; the MN recognition provoked a stronger activation in the central and posterior brain regions in contrast to the SN recognition. The SN and MN caused an activation of overlapping areas, namely, the ACC, MPFC, and superior frontal gyrus. These results suggest that Chinese individuals utilize certain common brain region in processing both the SN and the MN. The present findings provide evidence for the neural basis of the self and close others for Chinese individuals.

Previous transcultural neuroimaging studies have shown that the neural substrates of self-reflection can be shaped by different cultures. There are few studies, however, on the neural activity of self-reflection where religion is viewed as a form of cultural expression. The present study examined the self-processing of two Chinese ethnic groups (Han and Tibetan) to investigate the significant role of religion on the functional anatomy of self-representation. We replicated the previous results in Han participants with the ventral medial prefrontal cortex and left anterior cingulate cortex showing stronger activation in self-processing when compared with other-processing conditions. However, no typical self-reference pattern was identified in Tibetan participants on behavioral or neural levels. This could be explained by the minimal subjective sense of 'I-ness0964 in Tibetan Buddhists. Our findings lend support to the presumed role of culture and religion in shaping the neural substrate of self.

Azhu is similar to a Han’s lover, both terms indicating a romantic nature. The aim of the current study was to explore the essence of the relationship under the sexual union from a psychological perspective. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the emotional responses and the behavioral tendencies of four different relationships (kin, /lover, friend, and stranger), addressing distinct domains for which kinship is known (such as incest avoidance and altruistic behavior) by comparing the Moso people with the Han people.Fifty-eight Moso people and 61 Han people participated in Experiment 1. A 2 Ethnicity (Moso vs. Han) × 2 Gender (Male vs. Female) × 4 Relationship Type (Kin, /Lover, Friend, Stranger) mixed design was used. The participants’ emotional responses were rated in a Likert scale after imaging sexual intercourse with the four heterosexual relationship types respectively. Results in Experiment 1 showed that there was a remarkable ethnicity difference in incest avoidance. The Han people expressed a much stronger sense of disgust than the Moso people to sexual behavior with kin, while there were no significant differences in the degree of disgust caused by sexual behavior with non-kin between the Hans and the Mosos. The emotional responses caused by imaging sexual behavior with special objects differed between the two genders. Female participants’ negative emotions (including disgust) were much stronger than those of male participants’, while those of positive emotions (including romantic) were exactly the opposite. However, this kind of gender differences was non-significant regarding kinship.Fifty Moso people and 98 Han people participated in Experiment 2. The design was similar to Experiment 1. A Likert scale was used to evaluate the participants’ willingness to perform an altruistic behavior to help a kin, /lover, friend, and stranger respectively. The results indicated that the Moso people were more willing to perform selfless altruistic behaviors than the Han people to a kin, a friend or a stranger. However, the situation was the opposite when the /lover was in danger. The differences were smaller among the Han people when rating the altruistic behaviors between kins versus those between lovers, while the differences were larger among the Moso people when rating the altruistic behaviors between kins versus those between s; The differences were smaller among the Moso people when rating the altruistic behaviors between /lover. Han males had a stronger willingness to perform altruistic behaviors than Han females, whereas Moso females had a stronger willingness to help their than Moso males.In general, the results in the current study showed that the Han people treated their lovers as kins while Moso people treated their relationship under the sexual union in the Moso society was a kind of non-kin friendship, which was fundamentally different from the couple relationship of mainstream society.

The kinship, which is generally regarded as the initial social relationship of individuals, is formed on the basis of blood relationship and marriage. There are corresponding words to represent kinship in every language, which is called kinship words. Kinship words contain abundant information involving genetics, marriage, sociology and culture. Kinship words, the royal crown of anthropology and ethnonymics, are one of the most important topics in the field of anthropology, ethnonymics and linguistics, especially national psychology. Since 2001, by means of natural classifying, we explored the conceptual structure of kinship words among varied participant groups, including children, youngsters and undergraduates of different nationalities, such as the Han nationality, the Naxi nationality, the Moso, the Dai nationality, the Yi nationality, the Bai nationality and Jinuo nationality. The conceptual structure of kinship words varies from different nationalities. The series studies revealed the factors influencing the semantic categorization and conceptual organization, demonstrating that national language influenced national psychology; and revealed the mechanism of the impact of language on kinship words classifying, providing important evidences for the theories on the influences of language on cognition; and revealed the features of the different nationalities kinship, providing important materials for the theoretical basis of the national psychology.

采用自由分类法探讨了摩梭人亲属词的概念结构。结果表明：(1)摩梭人亲属词的概念结构有两个维度：“亲属的亲密程度”和“辈分大小”。这与汉族和纳西族亲属词的概念结构既相似, 又存在差异。摩梭人亲属词分类的特点反映了独特的母系家庭和婚姻制度。(2)舅权和父权在摩梭人的亲属关系中正在经历着变化。作者对“摩梭母系制是原始母系制的‘活化石’”的观点提出了质疑。

古代称谓多产生于“男尊女卑”的文化语境 ,又以特有的方式服务于这个性别文化格局。它维护了男性中心社会的性别秩序 ,代表了男性的一种话语权力。以此为视点 ,考察我国妇女传统的性别文化身份 ,用社会性别的眼光对其进行审视、分析、借鉴 ,是建设新的两性文化不可缺少的一个方面

Retrieval-induced forgetting under self-referential processing, mother-referential processing and other-referential processing conditions was examined. Under the former two conditions no retrieval-induced forgetting was found while it existed under other-referential processing condition. Thus, memory superiority of self-referential processing and mother-referential processing to other-referential processing was confirmed with the paradigm used in retrieval-induced forgetting research. The results showed that memory material under self or mother-referential processing condition can not only be remembered more than that under other-referential processing condition, but also showed no inhibition effect on related material during retrieval in Chinese subjects. Meanwhile, it can be concluded that mother-referential processing is a boundary condition for retrieval-induced forgetting for Chinese.

容器隐喻是空间隐喻的子类,通常使用容器类图式表征事物的相似性或是否在同一类别内。采用容器隐喻研究范式研究社会关系认知,能够发现群体间社会关系认知的差异并追溯其原因。众多因素影响容器隐喻,差序格局是其中之一。差序格局理论与容器隐喻有共通之处。在多民族背景下研究容器隐喻,不仅能证实差序格局理论的心理现实性,还能为我国＂一带一路＂的＂民心相通＂工程提供科学理论和合理政策建议,推进民族心理学的发展。

Kinship words are important and intricate social concepts which convey abundant information of heredity, marriage, society and culture. Kinship system plays an important part in human culture which also inversely affects people’s cognition for kinship. Few researches focused on the problems such as mechanism of microcosmic circumstance’s influence on kinship’s cognition and the mechanism of interaction between macro-environment and micro-environment. The Moso is a matriarchal ethnic group living in the border of Yunnan and Sichuan provinces and famous for “A zhu marriage” and “Matriarchal society family”.The Han nationality’s kinship system is distinct from The Moso. The present study intends to compare the conceptual structure of kinship words of the Moso and the Han nationality under different circumstance. Natural classifying and multi-dimensional scale were used to explore the Moso and the Han nationality’s conceptual structure of kinship words under “Manyue Wine (a reception for a baby's completion of its first month of life)”, “Marriage” and “Condolence” circumstance. The subjects were 225 Moso students and 242 Han students both from Yunnan’ Ninglang district. Before classifying, different instructions were read to lead the subjects to imagine the circumstance. Results showed that: Under the “The Manyue wine” circumstance, Moso’s conceptual structure of kinship words were grouped into two dimensions: (1) grade in the family hierarchy; (2) level of intimacy among the relatives. Han nationality’s conceptual structure of kinship words were also grouped into two dimensions: (1) the nature of kinship; (2) level of intimacy among the relatives. Under the “Marriage” circumstance; Moso’s conceptual structure of kinship words were grouped into two dimensions: (1) grade in the family hierarchy; (2) level of intimacy among the relatives. Han nationality’s conceptual structure were also grouped into two dimensions: (1) grade in the family hierarchy; (2) gender. Under the “Condolence” circumstance, Moso’s conceptual structure of kinship words were grouped into two dimensions: (1) grade in the family hierarchy; (2) level of intimacy among the relatives. Han nationality’s conceptual structure of kinship words were also grouped into two dimensions: (1) level of intimacy among the relatives; (2) grade in the family hierarchy. The importance ranking of kinship has significant correlation among 3 kinds of situations. Results showed that the structures of kinship words between Moso and Han reflect the characteristics of Moso culture and Han culture, showing culture’s shape to social cognition with intrinsic difference. Compared to the Han nationality, the most distinct characteristics of Moso’s kinship words classifying was followed with four aspects: (1) Ｍother’s brother was classified into the same group with immediate elders under “Manyue Wine” and “Marriage” circumstance. (2) Sister’s son was alone under “Condolence” circumstance. (3) Grandchildren relatives weren’t revealed special intimacy under the “Marriage” and “Condolence” circumstance. (4) There is no “in laws/ not in laws” dimension, and also there was no “Marriage” group in the kinship words classification.Similarities and difference exist in kinship classifying between the Moso and Han no matter circumstance’s guidance, reflecting situation’s influence on kinship words’ cognition. The Moso’s “zou-fang” system and Han nationality’s condolence system can reflect the macroscopic feature of Moso culture and Han culture. The divergence of classification under microcosmic circumstance also reflects the role of work memory. All results indicated that: (1) Under different situations, the classifying result between Moso and Han has not only similarity but also divergence; (2) The importance ranking of kinship has significant correlation under these kinds of situations; (3) Culture and situation affect relatives’ conceptual structure.

语言能否影响个体乃至群体的人格?这一问题吸引了众多的研究者关注。大量的研究发现,双语者在回答不同语言的人格测评工具时,出现了显著的人格差异;作为人格结构的一部分,认知方式亦受语言影响。研究者提出了三类理论来解释语言对人格的影响:语言关联性假设、文化适应性假设和文化框架转换效应。未来研究应该关注语言对具体人格特质的影响,扩大被试群体,关注语言影响人格的调节变量,揭示语言影响人格的脑机制。

自我参照会影响提取诱发遗忘。不同文化背景下这种规律是否具有普遍性,特别是现实宗教文化中的重要他人能否到自我结构之中,则很少有研究涉及。当前研究采用了提取诱发遗忘的标准范式,以回汉大学生为被试,通过实验考察了提取诱发遗忘现象在不同参照条件下的加工规律。结果发现,回族被试在自我参照和阿訇参照条件下没有出现提取诱发遗忘,而在一般他人参照条件下出现了提取诱发遗忘现象;汉族被试在自我参照条件下没有出现提取诱发遗忘,而在阿訇参照和一般他人参照条件下则出现了提取诱发遗忘现象;这表明在不同文化背景下,自我参照效应是一种普遍的规律;宗教文化中的重要他人可以被宗教信仰者整合到自我当中,并且在提取诱发遗忘加工过程中产生了阿訇参照效应。

自我记忆效应（self-reference effect,SRE）即凡与自我有关的加工均导致最优的记忆成绩,这一记忆成绩甚至优于语义加工.东方人的自我概念包含母亲成分,3项实验表明,中国人与自我有关的记忆并不优于与母亲有关的记忆,而是处于同一水平（特别是在R/K判断方面）;但是,西方人的自我不包含母亲成分,有资料表明,英国人、美国人与自我有关的记忆优于与母亲有关的记忆.从情景记忆的HERA（hemisphericencodiny/retrieval asymmetry）模型的角度,讨论上述东西方人自我记忆效应差异发现的意义,这一发现将为使用脑认知成像技术探索自我在脑中的定位提供新的思路.

Culture affects the psychological structure of self and results in two distinct types of self-representation (Western independent self and East Asian interdependent self). However, the neural basis of culture elf interaction remains unknown. We used fMRI to measured brain activity from Western and Chinese subjects who judged personal trait adjectives regarding self, mother or a public person. We found that the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) showed stronger activation in self- than other-judgment conditions for both Chinese and Western subjects. However, relative to other-judgments, mother-judgments activated MPFC in Chinese but not in Western subjects. Our findings suggest that Chinese individuals use MPFC to represent both the self and the mother whereas Westerners use MPFC to represent exclusively the self, providing neuroimaging evidence that culture shapes the functional anatomy of self-representation.