外派技术人员是企业间知识转移的重要载体,也是企业从外部获取知识的有效途径。基于个体社会资本的角度,结合外派技术人员的工作特征与社会网络特征,探讨外派技术人员的社会资本及其对企业间知识转移的影响机制,指出外派技术人员的社会资本三维度(结构、关系和认知)分别对企业间知识迁移的方向、载体和内容的影响,为下一步实证研究提供理论框架,并为企业在外派技术人员管理、推动企业间知识转移方面提出对策。

挑战性—阻碍性压力源分类框架指出,工作压力源可依据其性质及效果分为挑战性压力源与阻碍性压力源,表明压力亦有“好”“坏”之分.本文在介绍了挑战性 阻碍性压力源概念内涵与测量方法的基础上,重点讨论了挑战性—阻碍性压力源的认知交互理论、资源保存理论与工作要求—控制模型等基础理论,以及相应的作用效果模型,并梳理了有关挑战性—阻碍性压力源作用效果的实证研究结论,最后对未来研究重点进行了展望.

在决策理论与子公司发展理论基 础上,分析提出在华子公司高管团队决策效力的三个构成变量分别为高管团队的管理连结、决策全面性和决策自主权。对决策效力与在华子公司战略导向的关系及环 境动荡性的调节作用进行了辩析1,06家在华子公司样本检验的结果表明,在华子公司高管团队决策效力的三个代表变量均正向影响子公司战略导向,环境动荡性 负向调节决策全面性与战略导向的关系、正向调节决策自主权与战略导向的关系,而对管理连结与战略导向的关系没有调节作用。

Through the survey on a large sample of visiting scholars dispatched to other countries to do cooperative research, including those studying abroad, it is found that, motivational cultural intelligence is positively related to all three dimensions of crosscultural adjustment (i.e., general adjustment, interactional adjustment and work adjustment), while there are positive relationships between metacognitive cultural intelligence and general adjustment, and between cognitive cultural intelligence and interactional adjustment. Additionally, it is also found that culture novelty has a positive effect on all three dimensions of crosscultural adjustment.

本文旨在研究如何促进海外派遣人员（简称外派人员）的专业知识学习以顺利完成外派任务.对355位外派人员的实证结果发现：跨文化沟通能力是外派人员学习战略性隐性专业知识的重要影响因素.当外派人员所学的专业知识隐性程度增加时,跨文化沟通能力通过促进专业知识学习从而提升任务绩效的间接效应增加;只有在知识隐性程度低、文化距离大的情况下,跨文化沟通能力对任务绩效才有显著的直接影响效应.本文的研究结论丰富了跨国公司知识转移和外派人员管理相关研究成果,对跨国公司的外派人员选拔和培训也有较好的借鉴作用.

随着组织任务需求的不断变化以及环境不确定性的提高,员工仅仅被动接受和完成组织规定的工作任务已经远远不够,员工的主动行为对于组织的成功日益重要。本文从主动行为研究产生的背景出发,介绍了员工主动行为的概念内涵、前因变量及其作用机制,以及影响结果,并在此基础上,对未来的研究方向进行了展望。

随着中国企业的全球化扩张,中国企业外派人员数量也在不断增长,但对中国企业外派人员的调查研究仍处于空白阶段。采用问卷调查法对中国跨国公司外派人员在海外情况进行调查,并以探索性因素分析、验证性因素分析、层次回归和多方差分析等多种统计方法进行检验。结果显示:外派人员和东道国居民的社会网络在外派适应中具有不同的功效,文化距离在网络紧密度对一般适应影响中具有显著的正向调节效应,而在互动频率对工作适应中产生显著的负向调节效应。

This study among 214 nutrition production employees uses the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) model to predict future company registered absenteeism. According to this model, job demands are primarily responsible for health impairment, whereas job resources lead primarily to increased motivation and attachment to work and the organization. Consistent with hypotheses derived from the JD–R model and the absenteeism literature, results of structural equation modeling analyses show that job demands are unique predictors of burnout (i.e., exhaustion and cynicism) and indirectly of absence duration, whereas job resources are unique predictors of organizational commitment, and indirectly of absence spells. These findings have implications for individual and organizational interventions aimed at reducing absenteeism.

Business and behavioral undertakings such as job enrichment, participation, empowerment, and transformational leadership are organizational attempts to expand the employee role. This article examines a number of these undertakings to illustrate how they function as role-expansion mechanisms, and how they implicitly define five role characteristics generally reflective of a proactive employee. While job and task competence, interpersonal effectiveness, and organizational orientation have always been associated with the employee role, the other two role characteristics--enterprising qualities and personal integrity--represent relatively new expectations. These new demands raise some important issues for firms and managers, centered on differences associated with the firm's, the manager's, and the employee's expectations regarding the use of judgment and initiative. The article examines some implications of these differences, discusses person-environment fit considerations, and proposes recommendations for handling the problem. It concludes with a discussion of how the continuing evolution of the employee role blurs the traditional line between manager and employee, and how this affects the traditional managerial role.

In this study, we theoretically identify three dimensions of expatriate competencies- ability, motivation, and opportunity seeking-for knowledge transfer. Integrating the ability-motivation-opportunity framework and the absorptive capacity perspective, we propose that expatriate competencies in knowledge transfer influence a subsidiary's performance through the knowledge received by the subsidiary, but that this indirect effect is stronger when subsidiary absorptive capacity is greater. We collected multi- source, time-lagged data from 162 British subsidiaries of Taiwanese multinational firms. The results support our hypotheses. Overall, we contribute to expatriation theory and research by revealing specific expatriate competencies as well as identifying boundary conditions for successful expatriate knowledge transfer.

This study applied social network theory to investigate the factors influencing expatriate social networks and the consequences of expatriate social networks in China. Based on analysis of 171 Taiwanese expatriates in China, this study found that core self-evaluations and extraversion are significant for expatriates in developing expressive and instrumental ties with host country nationals. Moreover, job autonomy assists expatriates in developing instrumental ties with host country nationals. The expressive and instrumental ties of expatriates with host country nationals are significant for overseas adaptation. Finally, instrumental ties with host country nationals are significant for expatriate job performance.

This study empirically tests a model of associations between family-domain variables and willingness to accept an international assignment, and applies the general model to sub-samples of men and women to examine gender differences in the pattern of relationships. We further explore these patterns in culturally similar and culturally distant country destinations. Analyses conducted with a sample of 148 men and 79 women employed MBA graduates from dual-earner couples revealed that perceived spouse willingness to relocate, beliefs regarding spouse and couple mobility, relative income, and the presence of children are associated with willingness to accept an international assignment. Moreover, consistent with social role theory, significant gender differences in willingness were found across low and high cultural distance country destinations.

The time and attention of top management in an organization are critical, but limited, resources. This article develops insights on issue selling as a process that is central to explaining how and where top management allocates its time and attention. We see issue selling as a critical activity in the early stages of organizational decision-making processes. We first clarify the value of understanding issue selling at the individual and organizational levels and from both symbolic and instrumental perspectives. We then develop a framework for describing and studying issue selling in organizations that draws on three different theoretical perspectives: issue selling as upward influence, issue selling as claiming behaviors, and issue selling as impression management. We use the different perspectives to develop a set of testable research propositions. The article concludes with a discussion of practical and theoretical implications of the issue-selling framework.

In this study, we examined 82 accounts of "issue selling" to better understand managers' implicit theories for successfully shaping change from below by directing the attention of top management. The study reveals the importance of various issue-selling moves, including packaging, involvement, and timing. Managerial accounts uncover three kinds of contextual knowledge that are critical to the execution of issue-selling moves. The study shows managers actively shaping the issue-selling microprocesses that contribute to organizational change.

This research explores expatriate assignments from a career development perspective. First, the article examines the impact of five organization-level career development programs and policies on expatriate effectiveness. Then, it explores the impact of five individual-level career management strategies on the success of expatriate transitions. Data from 118 expatriates in Saudi Arabia, Europe, South America, and Japan are presented to examine these career development issues.

ABSTRACT Integrating work from the expatriate adjustment and newcomer socialization litera-tures within a motivational framework, we propose that motivational states and stress cognitions impact expatriates' work adjustment patterns over time, which in turn influence important assignment attitudes. In accordance with our theorizing, analyses of longitudinal data collected from 70 expatriates during their first four months of international assignment indicated that cross-cultural motivation and psychological empowerment related positively to initial levels of adjustment, and indirectly and negatively to work adjustment change. Challenge stressors positively related to changes in work adjustment over time. In turn, changes in work adjustment signif-icantly related to expatriates' assignment satisfaction and premature return inten-tion, explaining variance above and beyond that explained by average levels of work adjustment. These findings extend understanding of how and why expatriate work adjustment evolves over time, as well as the unique influence that differences in adjustment change have on important expatriate outcomes. Firms in today's global economy rely on interna-tional work assignments in which managers are expected to identify and manage new global oppor-tunities. The number of expatriates is estimated to be close to one million worldwide and is likely to continue to increase (Mercer, 2009). Although in-ternational assignments can provide firms and managers with unique growth and developmental opportunities (Yan, Zhu, & Hall, 2002), they also require expatriates to adjust effectively to novel work requirements, responsibilities, and expecta-tions, all while learning new cultural norms that impact work tasks (Shin, Morgeson, & Campion, 2007). It is perhaps not surprising that work adjust-ment (i.e., the extent to which expatriates feel com-fortable handling their jobs during an international assignment) is strongly positively related to both expatriates' work attitudes and effectiveness. In contrast, lack of expatriate work adjustment can lead to financial, professional, and personal costs (for reviews, see Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaf-fer, and Luk [2005], Harrison, Shaffer, and Bhaskar-Shrinivas [2004], and Takeuchi [2010]). However, it has been widely argued that it takes time for expatriates to adjust to uncertain and novel challenges inherent in international assignments (Black, 1988; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Takeuchi, 2010). Scholars have suggested that ad-justment occurs over time as expatriates exert and sustain effort to navigate their new work conditions (Black & Mendenhall, 1991; Farh, Bartol, Shapiro, & Shin, 2010; Maertz, Hassan, & Magnusson, 2009; Torbiorn, 1982). Further, Maertz et al. (2009) ar-gued that adjustment changes as a function of the extent to which expatriates meet and effectively handle assignment challenges. Although theory and initial evidence suggest that expatriate adjustment changes over time, Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. (2005: 273) observed that "fewer than 5 percent of the existing studies are longitu-dinal." Harrison et al. (2004: 237) more strongly noted that "almost no longitudinal research has

Despite its strong impact in domestic settings on job performance, organizational commitment, stress, and turnover intentions, job satisfaction has received little attention in the literature on expatriates. This paper analyzes the predictors of job satisfaction that may arise in an expatriate context. Drawing on the cultural distance perspective, we propose that the national cultural distance, supervisor's nationality, host-country language proficiency, expatriate type, and company nationality are important determinants of expatriate job satisfaction. Survey results from 148 expatriates in Japan demonstrate that national cultural distance, supervisor's nationality, and expatriate type have a statistically significant influence on expatriate job satisfaction. Theoretical and practical implications are provided.Research highlights? Cultural distance perspective helps explain expatriate job satisfaction. ? National cultural distance decreases expatriate job satisfaction. ? Expatriates show lower job satisfaction under host-country supervisors. ? Self-initiated expatriates show lower job satisfaction.

Cognitive evaluation theory, which explains the effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation, received some initial attention in the organizational literature. However, the simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation made the theory difficult to apply to work settings. Differentiating extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy led to self-determination theory, which has received widespread attention in the education, health care, and sport domains. This article describes self-determination theory as a theory of work motivation and shows its relevance to theories of organizational behavior.

ABSTRACT We adopt and develop an institutional perspective to advance our understanding of how host country environments influence subsidiary staffing strategies. We propose and find that firms rely more on parent company nationals (expatriates) in institutionally distant environments for reasons related to the efficient transfer of management practices and firm-specific capabilities. Further, we find that the positive influence of expatriate staffing levels on subsidiary performance (subsidiary labor productivity) is dependent on the institutional distance between the host and home country, and subsidiary experience. We base our findings on our analysis of expatriate employment levels and performance in 12,997 foreign subsidiaries of 2,952 Japanese firms in 48 countries.

How likely are multinational enterprises (MNEs) to use expatriate parent country nationals to staff culturally distant subsidiaries? How does their employment affect subsidiary performance? The agency theory prediction is that MNEs will rely more heavily on parent country nationals as cultural distance increases and that this reliance will weaken over time. Both agency theory and the "resource-based view" suggest that a positive effect of expatriate staffing on subsidiary performance increases with cultural distance but decreases over time. Results largely supported the predictions in data on Japanese foreign subsidiaries.

As the organizational literature on specific proactive behaviors grows, researchers have noted inefficiencies and redundancies in the separate study of different proactive behaviors when their underlying nature, antecedents, processes, and consequences may be similar. We develop a framework designed to generalize across specific manifestations of proactivity, describing the nature, dimensions, situational antecedents, psychological mechanisms, dispositional moderators, and consequences of proactive behavior. We conclude by discussing implications and recommendations for organizational scholars to take a more proactive approach to constructing, evaluating, and cumulating theory about proactive behavior. Our chapter thus answers recent calls for integrative theory about the general dynamics of proactivity, and fits with current trends emphasizing the increasing importance of proactivity in organizational life.

ABSTRACT We review 25 years of research on expatriate experiences concentrating on expatriate adjustment as a central construct, and relying on a general stressor-stress-strain framework. First, we consider who expatriates are, why their experiences differ from domestic employees, and what adjustment is. Conceptualizing (mal)adjustment in terms of stress, we next review the stressors and strains associated with it. Consolidating the wide range of antecedents (anticipatory and in-country) that have been studied to date, we note major patterns of effects and their implications for how HR managers can facilitate adjustment. Although relatively less research has focused on the consequences of adjustment, enough evidence exists to establish a bottom-line impact of poor adjustment on performance. To stimulate future efforts to understand the experiences of expatriates, we discuss the challenges and opportunities of continuing down this road of research.

This paper examines the discord surrounding how expatriate success, or effectiveness, is defined. We review the many ways that success has been conceptualized and then seek to reconcile these differences by presenting a multidimensional measure of success, based on data collected from 118 expatriate respondents worldwide. A series of factor analyses, along with reliability and item analyses yielded nine measurement scales which included cultural adjustment, work-related adjustment, career development, HQ-subsidiary coordination, assignment completion, professional/skill development, shaping and controlling the subsidiary, satisfaction and overall assignment effectiveness. The process by which these scales were developed is described in the paper and all items and scale reliabilities are presented.

A stress-management model of job strain is developed and tested with recent national survey data from Sweden and the United States. This model predicts that mental strain results from the interaction of job demands and job decision latitude. The model appears to clarify earlier contradictory findings based on separated effects of job demands and job decision latitude. The consistent finding is that it is the combination of low decision latitude and heavy job demands which is associated with mental strain. This same combination is also associated with job dissatisfaction. In addition, the analysis of dissatisfaction reveals a complex interaction of decision latitude and job demand effects that could be easily overlooked in conventional linear, unidimensional analyses. The major implication of this study is that redesigning work processes to allow increases in decision latitude for a broad range of workers could reduce mental strain, and do so without affecting the job demands that may plausibly be associated with organizational output levels.

What are the mechanisms by which multinational corporations (MNCs) can facilitate the effective performance of their expatriate staff in foreign countries? There is a substantial literature on expatriation, yet few studies have addressed how perceived organizational support (POS) may impact upon expatriates' work adjustment and affective commitment, and then on their job performance. We use data on 118 expatriates working at the German subsidiaries of Japanese MNCs, and demonstrate that career POS has a direct positive influence on work adjustment and affective commitment. Our results indicate that work adjustment fully mediated the relationship between career POS and task performance. We further discovered that both work adjustment and affective commitment play a pivotal role in mediating the impact of career POS on contextual performance. We discuss the practical implications of these findings and provide suggestions for future research.

This study examined the role of 3 sources of support in facilitating expatriate adjustment and performance. A model was developed that examined the effects of perceived organizational support (POS), leader-member exchange (LMX), and spousal support on expatriates' adjustment to work, the country, and interacting with foreign nationals. In turn, it was expected that expatriate adjustment would influence expatriate task performance and contextual performance. The model was tested using a sample of 213 expatriate-supervisor dyads via structural equation modeling. The results indicated that POS had direct effects on expatriate adjustment, which in turn had direct effects on both dimensions of performance. Although LMX did not influence adjustment, it did have direct effects on expatriate task and contextual performance. Spousal support did not relate to adjustment or performance. Practical implications for facilitating expatriate adjustment and performance are discussed.

This research tests the linkage between cultural intelligence, expatriate adjustment to the host country's environment and expatriate performance while on international assignments. The investigation is carried out with data from 134 expatriates based in multinational corporations in Malaysia. The results highlight a direct influence of expatriates’ cultural intelligence on general, interaction and work adjustments. The improved adjustments consequently have positive effects on both the expatriates’ task and contextual performance. The research findings have implications for both international human resource management (IHRM) researchers and managers.

In this study, we investigated a neglected form of extrarole behavior called taking charge and sought to understand factors that motivate employees to engage in this activity. Taking charge is discretionary behavior intended to effect organizationally functional change. We obtained both self-report and coworker data for 275 whitecollar employees from different organizations. Taking charge, as reported by coworkers, related to felt responsibility, self-efficacy, and perceptions of top management openness. These results expand current understanding of extrarole behavior and suggest ways in which organizations can motivate employees to go beyond the boundaries of their jobs to bring about positive change.

Contrasting fantasies about the future with reflections on reality that impedes fantasy realization creates a tight link between expectations of success and forming commitments to self-improvement goals. This effect applies to both fantasies about a positive future contrasted with impeding negative reality as well as fantasies about a negative future contrasted with impeding positive reality. In Study 1, with 63 student participants, contrasting positive fantasies about benefiting from a vocational training with negative reflections on reality impeding such benefits led to expectancy-dependent willingness to invest in the training, more so than indulging in the positive future and than dwelling on the negative reality. In Study 2, with 158 high school students from former East Berlin, contrasting negative, xenophobic fantasies about suffering from the influx of immigrants with positive reflections on reality impeding such suffering led to expectancy-dependent tolerance and willingness to integrate the immigrants. Findings are discussed in terms of how mental contrasting facilitates self-improvement and personal development by making people form expectancy-dependent goal commitments to approach positively-perceived as well as negatively-perceived futures.

Being proactive is about making things happen, anticipating and preventing problems, and seizing opportunities. It involves self-initiated efforts to bring about change in the work environment and/or oneself to achieve a different future. The authors develop existing perspectives on this topic by identifying proactivity as a goal-driven process involving both the setting of a proactive goal (proactive goal generation) and striving to achieve that proactive goal (proactive goal striving). The authors identify a range of proactive goals that individuals can pursue in organizations. These vary on two dimensions: the future they aim to bring about (achieving a better personal fit within one’s work environment, improving the organization’s internal functioning, or enhancing the organization’s strategic fit with its environment) and whether the self or situation is being changed. The authors then identify “can do,”“reason to,” and “energized to” motivational states that prompt proactive goal generation and sustain goal striving. Can do motivation arises from perceptions of self-efficacy, control, and (low) cost. Reason to motivation relates to why someone is proactive, including reasons flowing from intrinsic, integrated, and identified motivation. Energized to motivation refers to activated positive affective states that prompt proactive goal processes. The authors suggest more distal antecedents, including individual differences (e.g., personality, values, knowledge and ability) as well as contextual variations in leadership, work design, and interpersonal climate, that influence the proactive motivational states and thereby boost or inhibit proactive goal processes. Finally, the authors summarize priorities for future research

ABSTRACT The authors aimed to clarify the similarities, differences, and interrelationships among multiple types of proactive behavior. Factor analyses of managers’ self-ratings (N = 622) showed concepts were distinct from each other but related via a higher-order structure. Three higher-order proactive behavior categories were identified—proactive work behavior, proactive strategic behavior, and proactive person-environment fit behavior—each corresponding to behaviors aimed at bringing about change in the internal organization (e.g., voice), the fit between the organization and its environment (e.g., issue selling), and the fit between the individual and the organization (e.g., feedback seeking), respectively. Further analyses on a subsample (n = 319) showed similarities and differences in the antecedents of these behaviors.

This research investigates how the quality of the relationship between sending supervisors and expatriates is related to turnover and performance. Utilizing goal congruence and leader–member exchange (LMX) theories, it is hypothesized that the quality of the relationship between sending supervisors and expatriates mediates goal congruence and the two outcome variables: performance and turnover intentions. The goal examined is the degree to which the expatriation fits into expatriates' career paths at the firm. Regression analysis is used to test the hypotheses with a sample of 44 matched sending supervisor–expatriate dyads. Findings indicate that LMX mediates the relationship between goal congruence and performance. Furthermore, goal congruence has a direct negative relationship with turnover intentions. These results suggest that sending supervisors significantly influence the success of expatriate assignments.

Abstract The authors reviewed more than 70 studies concerning employees' general belief that their work organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being (perceived organizational support; POS). A meta-analysis indicated that 3 major categories of beneficial treatment received by employees (i.e., fairness, supervisor support, and organizational rewards and favorable job conditions) were associated with POS. POS, in turn, was related to outcomes favorable to employees (e.g., job satisfaction, positive mood) and the organization (e.g., affective commitment, performance, and lessened withdrawal behavior). These relationships depended on processes assumed by organizational support theory: employees' belief that the organization's actions were discretionary, feeling of obligation to aid the organization, fulfillment of socioemotional needs, and performance-reward expectancies.

This study examined the direct, mediating, and moderating effects of proactive outcomes in the relationship between newcomer proactive behaviors and socialization outcomes. Based on a sample of 204 co-op university students who completed surveys at the end of their work term, the results indicated that newcomers who more frequently engaged in a proactive behavior (e.g., information seeking) were more likely to receive the corresponding proactive outcome (e.g., information). We also found that proactive outcomes mediate the relationship between proactive behaviors and socialization outcomes and several of the proactive behaviors were more strongly related to socialization outcomes for newcomers who obtained more proactive outcomes. These results indicate the important yet previously neglected role of proactive outcomes for understanding the relationship between newcomer proactive socialization behaviors and outcomes.

The current literature is mixed regarding what factors determine expatriate performance. In this study, we developed and tested a model to examine the relationship among family problems, expatriate–efficacy, host-country nationals' (HCNs') prejudice against women, perceived organizational support (POS) and Chinese female expatriate performance in international assignments. Our results indicated that HCNs' prejudice against women had a significant negative relationship and expatriate–efficacy had a significant positive relationship with female expatriate performance. POS and family problems moderated the relationship between HCNs' prejudice against women and female expatriate performance. However, family problems were not significantly related to female expatriate performance. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Integrating multiple theoretical perspectives, we differentiated international experience into current and past experience. In addition, we organized past international experience along two dimensions: domain (work/travel) and cultural specificity (U.S./non-U.S.). We examined the effects of expatriates' current assignment experience and past international experience on cross-cultural adjustment. The results indicate that past international experience moderates the relationship between current assignment tenure and general and work adjustment and also that general and work adjustment directly affect expatriates' early return intentions.

ABSTRACT In this study, we examined nonlinear/interaction effects associated with the antecedents and consequences of psychological workplace strain, using cross-sectional (N=165) and longitudinal (N=133) data collected from Western expatriates in China. The results of this study indicate that family characteristics interact to affect the level of psychological workplace strain experienced by expatriates. In addition, we find an inverse u-curve relationship between psychological workplace strain and supervisory rated job performance for both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Finally, the empirical results lend support to the hypothesized positive relationship between work adjustment measured at Time 1 and job performance measured at Time 2. Implications for expatriate adjustment research and practice are discussed.

We used structural equation modeling to investigate relationships among protégés' personality characteristics, initiation of mentoring, mentoring received, and career success for 147 managers and professionals. Protégés influenced the amounts of mentoring they received by initiating relationships with mentors. Internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and high emotional stability enhanced initiation, which mediated the relationships between personality characteristics and mentoring received. The latter was related to career attainment and perceived career success, and career attainment influenced perceived success. Finally, protégé gender was not related to initiation or mentoring received.

This article examines the expectations of host-country organizations (HCO) concerning desired selection criteria for expatriate managers (EM) in multinational corporations, and compare these expectations with those of headquarters and EM. The study finds no major differences in expectations between MNC and HCO in Western Europe that would suggest an underlying conflict of interests. On the contrary, the study discloses that there is a substantial consensus among headquarters officials, EM, and representatives of HCO about the criteria desired in selecting international executives. Because of this similarity, one might logically assume that MNC that select their EM according to criteria endorsed by headquarters, by EM, or by HCO should not face a high rate of failure among international executives.