1 引言
2 好奇心的概念
2.1 好奇心的定义
好奇心既包括对于当前知识性问题答案的渴望, 也包含在长远视角中的战略部署(Gottlieb et al.2013)。作为一种重要的心理状态, 好奇心的概念发展历史悠久(见图1), 已有许多理论流派对好奇心提出了定义和解释 (胡克祖, 2005; 李天然, 俞国良, 2015)。James (1899)认为, 好奇心是一种为了更好认知的冲动, 即驱使人们去探索未知事物的一种欲望; Freud (1915)认为, 好奇心是一种个体对知识的渴望; 而Harlow (1950)认为好奇心是一种操作性的动机, 驱使个体进行没有任何实质回报的解决问题的行为; Cohen等(1955)认为好奇心是一种了解和理解外部世界的需求; Loewenstein (1994)认为好奇心是一种由内部驱动的信息寻求的特殊形式, 该定义与理论受到广泛认可。这些研究者对好奇心提出了来自本能论、驱力论及认知论的定义, 提供了不同角度的观点, 丰富了人类对好奇心概念的认知。Grossnickle (2016)整合前人对好奇心的定义, 发现四种好奇心的定义特征, 包括对知识或信息的需求、探索行为、对照变量(collative variables：包括不确定性、意外性、新颖性和复杂性)及情绪唤醒。基于此, Grossnickle重新评估并提出一个比较全面的定义：个体在经历或寻找某个对照性变量时, 对知识或信息的渴望, 并伴随着积极的情绪、强烈的唤醒或探索性的行为。该定义较全面涵盖了心理学对好奇心的定义。之后, Dubey和Griffiths (2020)从计算建模的角度提出, 好奇心是一种整合了基于新奇和复杂性理论的未来奖励最大化机制。因此, 好奇心的定义在经历了不同理论流派的碰撞后, 开始整合与交汇, 并且在多学科碰撞和交叉中继续发展。
图1
2.2 好奇心的分类
2.2.1 基于好奇对象的分类
Daniel Berlyne 是20世纪最重要的好奇心研究者之一, 他从两个维度将好奇心区分为4种类型。其中一个维度是依据好奇对象进行分类, 从知觉性(perceptual)到认知性(epistemic)的好奇心(Berlyne, 1954)。知觉性好奇心和认知性好奇心的对象不同。知觉性好奇心是一种促使个体通过感官刺激寻找新异信息的驱动力, 这种驱动力会随着持续接触而减弱(Berlyne, 1954; Litman & Spielberger, 2003)。它不仅是动物和人类婴儿阶段探索行为的主要驱动力, 也是成年人探索行为的驱动力之一(Berlyne, 1954)。而认知性好奇心是一种获得知识与信息的需求和渴望(Kang et al.2009; Litman, 2005), 以消除当时的不确定性。它主要适用于人类, 因此这也是区分人类和动物的一个特征(Berlyne, 1966)。这种分类被广泛应用在好奇心研究中, 例如冷知识问题范式(travia question paradigm)是诱发认知性好奇心的主要研究方式(Kang et al.2009; Ligneul et al.2018; Marvin & Shohamy, 2016), 而模糊图片范式是诱发知觉性好奇心的研究范式之一(Jepma et al.2012; Wiggin et al.2019)。
Grossnickle (2016)按照好奇心的对象将其分成四类：物理性好奇心(physical curiosity)、知觉性好奇心(perceptual curiosity)、社会性好奇心(social curiosity)和认知性好奇心(epistemic curiosity, 或称为信息寻求好奇心)。除Berlyne (1954)提到的知觉性好奇心和认知性好奇心, 还包括物理性好奇心和社会性好奇心。前者是指对自己和周围环境的探索和操控(Dewey, 1910), 后者是指个体希望获得关于他人行为、想法、感受等新信息或与他人交往的愿望, 在这种愿望的驱动下个体产生探索性行为(Renner, 2006; Robinson et al.2017)。社会性好奇心也被称为人际性好奇心(interpersonal curiosity, 李天然, 俞国良, 2015), 它指个体对他人的新信息产生好奇, 包括他人的生活经历、生活习惯和细节, 以及内在的想法、感受、兴趣等的信息(Litman & Pezzo, 2007)。
2.2.2 基于产生好奇的原因的分类
Berlyne (1954)提到的另外一个维度则是根据好奇的原因进行分类, 从特异性(specific)到多样性(diversive)的好奇心。特异性好奇心是指对特定信息的一种渴望。而多样性好奇心是指对于知觉或认知刺激的一种普遍性渴望。例如, 当老鼠在没有任何明确任务的情况下, 倾向于探索迷宫中不熟悉的部分, 就是多样性好奇心的体现。
2.2.3 基于稳定性的分类
好奇心不仅是个体对环境的反应所表现出来的暂时的好奇状态(Loewenstein, 1994), 也可以是个体通过对环境特征的频繁反应或寻求好奇的机会来体验对新知识或经验渴望的一种持久的性格倾向(Kashdan & Fincham, 2004; Litman & Silvia, 2006)。大五人格中的开放性(openness)能够显著预测好奇心, 这表明好奇心可能是一种稳定的人格特质(Kashdan et al.2004)。Kashdan等人(2009)提出, 好奇心特质可以通过“延伸” (stretching)和“怀抱” (embracing)两个维度进行衡量, “延伸”代表寻求知识和新经验的动机, 而“怀抱”代表愿意接受日常生活的新奇、不确定性以及不可预知。
2.3 好奇心与其他认知驱动力的区别
2.3.1 好奇心与信息寻求
由于特异性好奇心和多样性好奇心都会驱动个体搜索获取信息, 因此当前普遍认为, 好奇心是信息寻求的一种特殊类型。好奇心与信息寻求的区别在于, 好奇心通常来源于内在驱动力, 而信息寻求则可能来自内在或外在两种驱动力(Loewenstein, 1994)。因此, 有研究者认为行为主体出于即时原因而寻求信息的行为并不是好奇心; 也有研究者将来自外在的驱动力纳入好奇心范畴, 并据此将好奇心分为工具性好奇心和非工具性好奇心以减少混淆。
2.3.2 好奇心与兴趣
虽然好奇心和兴趣是两个不同的概念, 但是两者存在一定关系(Ainley, 1987)。一方面, 好奇心和兴趣都被认为是内在的、自发的过程(Iran- Nejad & Cecil, 1992; Iran-Nejad & Chissom, 1992), 二者都与大脑奖赏系统有关(Berridge et al.2009; Kang et al.2009)。另一方面, 好奇心有可能会引起兴趣(Silvia, 2008)。Schmitt和Lahroodi (2008)认为, 认知性好奇心需要个体积累知识, 且往往是关于特定主题的知识。这些知识建立了后续的知识动机, 并帮助个体确定他们的兴趣。知识的增长与个人兴趣的结合建立了一个基础, 在此基础上, 个体能够提出好奇的问题, 这反过来有助于兴趣的持续发展(Hidi, 2006; Renninger, 2000)。
好奇心和兴趣混用的现象较为常见, 可从以下三个方面对二者进行区分：
2) 目标和导致的结果。好奇心的目标是减少不确定性和填补知识差距(knowledge gap); 而兴趣是追求愉悦和获得知识的过程(Grossnickle, 2016)。
好奇心的定义在多学科交叉中继续发展; 好奇心的分类也得到广泛研究并在当前研究中得到应用, 为好奇心的心理成分和神经机制研究提供了细分化的研究主题和可操控的研究范式。
3 好奇心的心理成分和神经机制
图2
3.1 好奇心的来源：海马与前扣带皮层的作用
先验知识使人们能够对环境做出预测, 因此在先验知识很少或事件违反个体预期时, 预测误差就会发生。一种是基于情境(context)的预测误差, 与海马(hippocampus)有关。海马是形成认知地图(cognitive map)的关键脑区, 可使个体根据过去类似情境下的经验产生预测(O'Keefe & Nadel, 1979)。当个体处于一个新异环境或环境发生变化时, 现实情境与海马产生的预测产生差距, 反过来刺激海马神经元亚群(错位系统), 引起探索行为来解决不确定性(O'Keefe & Nadel, 1979)。研究表明, 人类更倾向花更多时间看新异刺激(Kidd et al.2012)或与之前相比发生变化的区域(Hannula et al.2012), 这种对新异性的探索使海马活动增强(Liu et al.2017; Voss et al.2017)。因此, 海马被认为是与好奇心产生有关的脑区。
另一种是基于信息的预测误差, 与前扣带皮层(anterior cingulate cortex, ACC)的活动有关。当个体在某一特定领域中想要理解的知识高于当前知识水平或违背原本的先验知识时, 就会产生一种信息差距(information gap, 胡克祖, 2005; Gottlieb et al.2013; Litman et al.2005; Loewenstein, 1994), 此时ACC会发出认知冲突的信号, 从而引发特定的认知性和知觉性好奇心。通过个体的信息寻求行为, 特定的认知好奇心可以减少信息差距所带来的不确定性。研究表明, 个体对冷知识问题答案的好奇心是对于知道答案的信心的倒U型函数：当被试对答案一无所知或极度自信时, 他们对答案最不感到好奇; 当知道一些相关信息但缺乏信心时, 好奇心最强(Kang et al.2009), 该结果支持了信息差距的观点。当个体对魔术或对冷知识问题感到高度好奇时, ACC显著激活(Lau et al.2020); 当模糊图片成功诱发被试好奇心时, ACC和前岛叶(anterior insula)显著激活(Jepma et al.2012)。
3.2 对预测误差的评估：外侧前额叶皮层的作用
环境或信息引发的预测误差有时不足以引发好奇心, 在某些情况下, 还可能产生相反的效果而引起焦虑。预测误差和信息差距会触发由外侧前额叶皮层(lateral prefrontal cortex, lPFC)支持的评估过程, 从而决定一个人的行动是抑制还是探索, 产生的主观体验是焦虑还是好奇(Gruber & Ranganath, 2019)。个体在这个阶段会权衡当前的不确定状态是否反映了潜在威胁, 自己是否拥有解决不确定性所需的能力、知识和资源(Noordewier & van Dijk, 2016; Silvia, 2005)。如果个体认为自身有能力解决不确定性, 这种预测误差就会引发好奇心和探索行为; 反之, 就会引发焦虑和行为抑制。因此, 海马和前扣带皮层不仅参与探索行为, 也在焦虑状态下对探索行为的抑制中起作用(Bannerman et al.2003; Cullen et al.2015)。
3.3 好奇心的处理：中脑多巴胺系统与去甲肾上腺素系统的作用
中脑多巴胺系统是好奇心触发所涉及的一组脑区。好奇心会驱使个体寻找新信息减少当前的不确定性(Berlyne, 1960; Loewenstein, 1994), 多巴胺神经调节系统能够刺激探索和信息寻求行为, 增强信息编码和记忆巩固。研究表明, 新异刺激与奖赏相关的脑区激活有关, 包括伏隔核(NAc)、黑质(SN)和腹侧被盖区(VTA, Axmacher et al.2010; Krebs et al.2011); 而好奇心增强了NAc、尾状核(caudate nucleus)、SN/VTA的激活(Gruber et al.2014; Kang et al.2009; Lau et al.2020)。因此, 好奇心可能与中脑多巴胺系统有关。
3.4 好奇心引发的探索行为：注意网络的作用
好奇心可以激发大脑额叶和顶叶等与注意有关的脑网络(Jepma et al.2012; van Lieshout et al.2018), 并且与好奇心密切相关的中脑多巴胺系统也会促使个体对与过去或未来奖赏相关的刺激产生即时的注意力偏向(Anderson, 2016; Gottlieb & Oudeyer, 2018)。因此可以认为, 个体通过增强注意力来维持好奇心触发之后的探索行为(Gruber & Ranganath, 2019)。研究表明, 婴儿会受环境中一些简单启发, 产生好奇心来引导自己注意世界中的某些中等复杂度的特征信息, 以便能够更有效地探索世界, 发展自身认知能力(Kidd & Hayden, 2015)。而眼动研究结果表明, 被试会在冷知识问题答案出现之前将注视点预先调整到预期的答案位置, 并且好奇心越强, 注视点转移至预期答案位置的速度就越快。这使得好奇心能够决定注意分配和任务优先级, 成为一种主动的学习和探索机制(Baranes et al.2015)。
3.5 惊奇和新的不确定性：腹内侧与嘴外侧前额叶皮层的作用
每次好奇心相关信息呈现都会引发个体不同程度的惊奇(surprise), 而人类的认知系统代表在情境中的平均惊奇(average surprise)的数量(Ligneul et al.2018)。在信息寻求中新获得的信息有可能带来惊奇和新的不确定性。根据预期编码理论, 减少不确定性和惊奇是我们认知系统的主要功能(Clark, 2013; Friston et al.2012)。因此, 平均惊奇越高, 短时间内可接受的不确定性就越多, 这会抑制个体的非特异性认知好奇心, 避免更多新的不确定性来源; 而平均惊奇越低, 个体可能会积极进行不定向的探索, 增强非特定性好奇心来实现他们对惊奇的期望。惊奇可能会引发新的预测误差, 产生新的好奇心, 促进进一步的探索(Vogl et al.2020)。研究表明, 腹内侧前额叶皮层(ventromedial prefrontal cortex, vmPFC)的活动计算了好奇心引发的惊奇, 而嘴外侧前额叶皮层(rostrolateral prefrontal cortex, rlPFC)的活动编码了呈现冷知识问题答案时惊奇的预测误差, 以实现平均惊奇与非特异性好奇心间的调节(Ligneul et al.2018)。
在神经科学研究的推动下, 个体好奇心发生发展的心理机制(理论)得到了更系统的整合。大脑多个脑区的分工与协同, 使得个体形成了产生与评估预测误差、触发与缓解好奇心以及产生惊奇与新预测误差的认知过程。虽然当前研究表明, 可能大脑认知过程的不同阶段并非都由单个脑区负责, 而是多个脑区的协同活动(例如, 构建大脑功能连接), 但本文提出的好奇心心理成分与神经机制的理论框架, 有助于理解好奇心的认知过程的不同阶段及其神经机制, 对好奇心脑机制研究有参考意义。
4 好奇心的作用
好奇心在个体终生发展过程中具有普遍的作用和意义, 我们将从促进学习、记忆与创造力、注意等认知功能、保持心理健康和身体健康等方面评述好奇心的作用。
4.1 好奇心对认知功能的作用
4.1.1 好奇心与学习和记忆
好奇心能够促进个体学习和记忆。人类自婴儿起就是好奇的学习者, 因为世界充满了潜在的学习资源, 他们会通过在学习环境中建立结构来驱动自己的认知发展(Kidd & Hayden, 2015; Pereira et al.2013)。对于在学前、小学阶段的儿童和中学阶段的青少年, 好奇心和学术成就之间都存在正相关(Froiland et al.2015; Shah et al.2018; Tucker-Drob et al.2016)。一项使用冷知识问题范式的研究表明, 呈现答案前对问题的好奇心促进了儿童和青少年对于问题的记忆, 并且呈现答案后的惊奇促进了青少年对于问题的记忆(Fandakova & Gruber, 2019)。另外一项研究结果表明, 年轻人和老年人对感到好奇的材料的记忆都强于对无聊材料的记忆(Fastrich et al.2018; McGillivray et al.2015), 对意外结果事件也都表现出更强的学习能力(Nassar et al.2016; Nassar et al.2012)。
当个体遇到新异或意料之外的事情并体验到好奇心时, 多巴胺和去甲肾上腺素通过调节海马活动来促进学习(Oudeyer et al.2016)。纹状体、SN/VTA不仅共同调节海马内侧颞叶的活动, 而且在处理新异刺激时, 与海马活动的增强和记忆和学习能力的提高有关(Bunzeck et al.2012; Lisman & Grace, 2005)。多巴胺也能够增强依赖海马的记忆巩固(Lisman & Grace, 2005; Shohamy & Adcock, 2010)。此外, 与蓝斑活动相关的情绪引起的阶段性觉醒会调节学习和海马功能(Mather et al.2016; Sakaki et al.2014), 这表明好奇心对学习的增强作用也可能与蓝斑有关。
4.1.2 好奇心与创造力
好奇心能够促进个体的创造力。许多研究已证实, 好奇心越强, 创造力越强(Celik et al.2016; Hardy et al.2017; Peljko et al.2016; Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo,2017), Schutte和Malouff (2019)的元分析也发现了创造力随着好奇心的增强而增强。首先, 好奇心有助于分析问题和收集信息。定义问题和收集信息是创造力过程的初始步骤(Mumford & McIntosh, 2017), 而好奇心可能引发个体信息寻求行为, 识别和定义需要解决的问题, 因此好奇心可能是创造力的一个推动力。其次, 好奇心可能是一种积极情绪(Fredrickson, 1998), 鼓励个体的新异性想法和行为, 这反过来又会促进能力和资源的发展, 进行自我扩展和构建(Fredrickson & Joiner, 2018)。此外, 思想联系(idea linking, Hagtvedt et al.2019)以及心流(flow, Schutte & Malouff, 2020)在好奇心和创造力之间起到了中介作用。
4.1.3 好奇心与注意
4.1.4 好奇心与其他认知功能
好奇心对其他认知功能也存在积极影响。老年人的认知需求(即寻求和享受智力活动的倾向)能够预测认知能力(Baer et al.2012), 而个体认知需求与好奇心相关(Olson et al.1984), 这说明了好奇心可以防止因衰老导致的认知衰退。对新奇刺激的偏好与老年人更好的认知功能相关(Daffner et al.2007; Daffner et al.2006a, 2006b), 甚至会降低罹患阿尔茨海默病的风险(Fritsch et al.2005)。相比熟悉的刺激, 被试对新异刺激的工作记忆表现更好 (Mayer et al.2011)。这是由于和好奇心相关的多巴胺系统和去甲肾上腺素能系统都参与前额叶皮层活动, 并影响其功能, 例如工作记忆、个体自上而下的加工以及目标导向的行为等(Arnsten, 2011; Arnsten et al.2015; Usher et al.1999)。
4.2 好奇心对心理健康的作用
好奇心对个体保持心理健康有积极作用。首先, 好奇心可能会降低个体焦虑水平。弗洛伊德认为, 探索行为是由本能的生物冲动和自我机制决定的, 有助于减少威胁和不安全感(Aronoff, 1962)。已有相关研究表明了好奇心与焦虑之间的关系。从产生好奇的原因的分类角度看, 兴趣型好奇心产生与焦虑呈负相关, 而剥夺型好奇心与焦虑呈正相关(Litman, 2010; Litman & Jimerson, 2004); 从好奇的稳定性的分类角度看, 一般特质和状态好奇心与社交焦虑都存在负相关关系(Kashdan & Roberts, 2004, 2006)。但整体而言, 好奇心对焦虑的影响及其机制还缺乏来自因果关系的实证研究。
其次, 适度的好奇心可以减少心理障碍的发生。情感淡漠(apathy)是一种以缺乏动机为特征的综合症状, 影响个体行为、认知和情感, 且不能归因于智力障碍、情绪困扰或意识水平下降(Marin, 1991)。情感淡漠与认知功能较快衰退有关, 在除注意以外的所有认知表现中, 好奇心与情感淡漠的相关性最为明显(Montoya-Murillo et al.2019)。换言之, 缺乏好奇心可能是情感淡漠最具代表性的症状。在轻度认知障碍(MCI)患者中, 有情感淡漠的患者比其他MCI患者更有可能发展为痴呆(Lanctôtet al.2017; Robert et al.2008)。此外, 过度的好奇心会导致注意力分散, 这是注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)等疾病的一种症状(Kidd & Hayden, 2015)。
4.3 好奇心对身体健康的作用
好奇心对个体保持身体健康也有积极作用(Consedine & Moskowitz, 2007; Peterson et al.2006)。首先, 好奇心促使人们灵活解决问题, 帮助人们有效应对生理和心理问题(Sakaki et al.2018)。研究表明, Swan和Carmelli (1996)在研究中控制了年龄、教育水平和吸烟行为等其他风险因素后发现, 老年人好奇心越强, 5年后在世的可能性越高。其次, 好奇心能预测个体的身体机能。已有研究表明, 好奇心可以预测高血压和糖尿病(Richman et al.2005)。此外, 好奇心对心理健康的影响可能中介了好奇心与身体健康的关系(Sakaki et al.2018)。个体的焦虑和抑郁程度越高, 约10年后罹患冠心病的风险越大(Kubzansky et al.2006); 有创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)症状的人在随访14年中更有可能发展成冠心病(Kubzansky et al.2009), 而好奇心可以增强个体积极情绪, 减少消极情绪(例如上述的焦虑、抑郁情绪等), 从而帮助个体维持身体健康(DeSteno et al.2013)。
5 总结与展望
好奇心的概念正不断地被明确和完善, 好奇心的分类也越来越多样, 这对好奇心的研究提供了细分化的研究主题和可操控的研究范式。综合前人研究, 我们重点关注好奇心的心理成分和神经机制, 构建了好奇心认知过程阶段的理论框架。从进化角度看, 好奇心是适应的结果(Loewenstein, 1994), 因此它在个体终生发展过程中具有重要作用。作为跨学科、多领域交叉的研究主题, 好奇心近年来的研究结果和方法可能带来以下几个热门的研究方向。
5.1 不同类型好奇心在心理成分和神经机制上的共性与差异
5.2 好奇心与其他概念的相似性和差异性
好奇心与兴趣之间的异同点已经得到充分研究, 但仍有一些其他概念与好奇心之间的关系尚未得到充分论证。例如好奇心与饥饿、归属感等基本内在驱动力, 以及好奇心与信息寻求、探索行为等之间的关系还不完全明确。
5.3 特质好奇心和状态好奇心之间的关系
好奇心既是一种特质, 也是一种状态, 而研究者可能过分对立看待二者之间的关系。影响状态好奇心的重要因素之一是个体的特质好奇心, 此外还有个体对对象的了解程度、认知方式等。因此, 未来研究者可以通过认知计算模型探索不同因素对不同种类的状态好奇心的影响, 并进一步明确特质好奇心与状态好奇心之间的关系。
5.4 认知老化过程中, 好奇心是否存在代偿性的神经机制
之前的研究者提出老化和认知的脚手架理论(scaffolding theory of aging and cognition, STAC)、神经环路利用假说(compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis, CRUNCH)等执行功能老化的代偿说理论。好奇心作为一种毕生发展、贯穿人生始终的认知过程, 是否在认知老化的过程中也存在代偿性的神经机制仍有待研究。
5.5 好奇心的心理与神经机制对人工智能算法的推动具有借鉴意义
好奇心是一种生物特有的认识外部世界的经济有效的学习方式, 越来越多的研究者将人类好奇心的心理与神经机制通过计算科学迁移到人工智能与机器人领域, 使得人工智能获得更加全面与接近真实的人类智能。未来的研究应将好奇心的认知过程和神经机制应用到人工智能的算法中, 推动人工智能在学习等领域的进步。
5.6 好奇心与焦虑之间的关系
在Gruber和Ranganath (2019)提出的PACE框架中, LPFC对预测误差会进行评估, 判断个体产生好奇心和探索行为还是焦虑状态, 这两种状态是相互冲突的：如果预测误差诱发了好奇心与探索行为, 个体会通过获得知识、减少不确定性、闭合信息差距来缓解焦虑状态; 而如果诱发了焦虑, 则会产生一种心理防御机制, 抑制好奇心和探索行为, 使得个体好奇心和探索减少。好奇心与焦虑的相互影响及其机制还缺乏来自因果关系的实证研究。因此, 好奇心和焦虑的关系有待进一步研究明确。
5.7 跨物种的角度研究好奇心与探索行为的机制
与其他常见的认知功能类似, 之前已经有较多关于啮齿动物和非人灵长类动物的探索行为的研究, 而当前成熟的动物行为学范式和前沿的生物神经调控技术使得研究角度更加细微、操作范围更大, 并提供了跨物种比较的可能性。未来可以通过研究动物(包括猴子、老鼠、甚至蛔虫)的探索行为, 将其与人类好奇心的心理和神经机制进行比较, 从跨物种的角度来推动人类好奇心与探索行为的机制的理解和研究。
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INTRODUCTION: Apathy is common in neurocognitive disorders (NCDs) such as Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Although the definition of apathy is inconsistent in the literature, apathy is primarily defined as a loss of motivation and decreased interest in daily activities. METHODS: The Alzheimer's Association International Society to Advance Alzheimer's Research and Treatment (ISTAART) Neuropsychiatric Syndromes Professional Interest Area (NPS-PIA) Apathy workgroup reviewed the latest research regarding apathy in NCDs. RESULTS: Progress has recently been made in three areas relevant to apathy: (1) phenomenology, including the use of diagnostic criteria and novel instruments for measurement, (2) neurobiology, including neuroimaging, neuropathological and biomarker correlates, and (3) interventions, including pharmacologic, nonpharmacologic, and noninvasive neuromodulatory approaches. DISCUSSION: Recent progress confirms that apathy has a significant impact on those with major NCD and those with mild NCDs. As such, it is an important target for research and intervention.
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PMID:32231281
[本文引用: 2]
Curiosity is often portrayed as a desirable feature of human faculty. However, curiosity may come at a cost that sometimes puts people in harmful situations. Here, using a set of behavioural and neuroimaging experiments with stimuli that strongly trigger curiosity (for example, magic tricks), we examine the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying the motivational effect of curiosity. We consistently demonstrate that across different samples, people are indeed willing to gamble, subjecting themselves to electric shocks to satisfy their curiosity for trivial knowledge that carries no apparent instrumental value. Also, this influence of curiosity shares common neural mechanisms with that of hunger for food. In particular, we show that acceptance (compared to rejection) of curiosity-driven or incentive-driven gambles is accompanied by enhanced activity in the ventral striatum when curiosity or hunger was elicited, which extends into the dorsal striatum when participants made a decision.
From relief to surprise: Dual control of epistemic curiosity in the human brain
The Hippocampal-VTA loop: Controlling the entry of information into long-term memory
Curiosity and the pleasures of learning: Wanting and liking new information
Interest and deprivation factors of epistemic curiosity
Relationships between measures of I- and D-type curiosity, ambiguity tolerance, and need for closure: An initial test of the wanting-liking model of information-seeking
Epistemic curiosity, feeling-of-knowing, and exploratory behaviour
The measurement of curiosity as a feeling of deprivation
Dimensionality of interpersonal curiosity
The Latent structure of trait curiosity: Evidence for interest and deprivation curiosity dimensions
DOI:10.1207/s15327752jpa8603_07
URL
PMID:16740115
[本文引用: 1]
To evaluate Litman and Jimerson's (2004) Interest/Deprivation (I/D) model of curiosity, 355 students (269 women, 86 men) responded to 6 trait curiosity measures including the Curiosity/Interest in the World scale (C/IW; Peterson & Seligman, 2004), the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI; Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004), the Perceptual Curiosity scale (PC; Collins, Litman, & Spielberger, 2004), the Epistemic Curiosity scale (EC; Litman & Spielberger, 2003), and the Curiosity as a Feeling-of-Deprivation scales (CFD; Litman & Jimerson, 2004). Consistent with expectations, the results of confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that the C/IW, CEI, PC, EC scales defined an Interest (I) curiosity factor, whereas the CFD scales formed a Deprivation (D) curiosity factor. However, as compared to the other interest-based curiosity measures, one of the EC subscales was found to be less differentiated from the CFD scales, presumably because these instruments assess overlapping aspects of Berlyne's (1954) concept of epistemic curiosity. The results of this study indicated that I and D curiosity are related but differentiated curiosity dimensions, providing evidence for the validity of the I/D model.
Measuring epistemic curiosity and its diversive and specific components
Visual sampling predicts hippocampal activity
The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation
Hunters, busybodies, and the knowledge network building associated with curiosity
Apathy: A neuropsychiatric syndrome
Curiosity and reward: Valence predicts choice and information prediction errors enhance learning
Norepinephrine ignites local hotspots of neuronal excitation: How arousal amplifies selectivity in perception and memory
Enhancing visual working memory encoding: The role of target novelty
Chapter 31 - Conceptions and Correlates of Openness to Experience. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S. Briggs (Eds.)
Thirst for knowledge: The effects of curiosity and interest on memory in younger and older adults
DOI:10.1037/a0039801
URL
PMID:26479013
[本文引用: 1]
Given age-related memory impairments, one's level of curiosity or interest could enhance memory for certain information. In the current study, younger and older adults read trivia questions, rated how curious they were to learn each answer, provided confidence and interest ratings, and judgments of learning after learning the answer. No age-related differences in memory were found. Analyses indicated that curiosity and interest contributed to the formation of judgments of learning. Additionally, interest had a unique increasing relationship with older, but not younger, adults' memory performance after a one-week delay. The results suggest that subjective interest may serve to enhance older adults' memory.
The impact of apathy on cognitive performance in the elderly
Creative thinking processes: The past and the future
Age differences in learning emerge from an insufficient representation of uncertainty in older adults
Rational regulation of learning dynamics by pupil-linked arousal systems
DOI:10.1038/nn.3130
URL
PMID:22660479
[本文引用: 1]
The ability to make inferences about the current state of a dynamic process requires ongoing assessments of the stability and reliability of data generated by that process. We found that these assessments, as defined by a normative model, were reflected in nonluminance-mediated changes in pupil diameter of human subjects performing a predictive-inference task. Brief changes in pupil diameter reflected assessed instabilities in a process that generated noisy data. Baseline pupil diameter reflected the reliability with which recent data indicate the current state of the data-generating process and individual differences in expectations about the rate of instabilities. Together these pupil metrics predicted the influence of new data on subsequent inferences. Moreover, a task- and luminance-independent manipulation of pupil diameter predictably altered the influence of new data. Thus, pupil-linked arousal systems can help to regulate the influence of incoming data on existing beliefs in a dynamic environment.
Interest in complex novelty
The cognitive map as a hippocampus
Curiosity and need for cognition
Intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and learning: Theory and applications in educational technologies
DOI:10.1016/bs.pbr.2016.05.005
URL
PMID:27926442
[本文引用: 2]
This chapter studies the bidirectional causal interactions between curiosity and learning and discusses how understanding these interactions can be leveraged in educational technology applications. First, we review recent results showing how state curiosity, and more generally the experience of novelty and surprise, can enhance learning and memory retention. Then, we discuss how psychology and neuroscience have conceptualized curiosity and intrinsic motivation, studying how the brain can be intrinsically rewarded by novelty, complexity, or other measures of information. We explain how the framework of computational reinforcement learning can be used to model such mechanisms of curiosity. Then, we discuss the learning progress (LP) hypothesis, which posits a positive feedback loop between curiosity and learning. We outline experiments with robots that show how LP-driven attention and exploration can self-organize a developmental learning curriculum scaffolding efficient acquisition of multiple skills/tasks. Finally, we discuss recent work exploiting these conceptual and computational models in educational technologies, showing in particular how intelligent tutoring systems can be designed to foster curiosity and learning.
Strengths of character and well-being
Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex
The neural representation of unexpected uncertainty during value-based decision making
An empirical study of the relationship between entrepreneurial curiosity and innovativeness
A Bottom-up view of toddler word learning
DOI:10.3758/s13423-013-0466-4
URL
PMID:23813190
[本文引用: 1]
A head camera was used to examine the visual correlates of object name learning by toddlers as they played with novel objects and as the parent spontaneously named those objects. The toddlers' learning of the object names was tested after play, and the visual properties of the head camera images during naming events associated with learned and unlearned object names were analyzed. Naming events associated with learning had a clear visual signature, one in which the visual information itself was clean and visual competition among objects was minimized. Moreover, for learned object names, the visual advantage of the named target over competitors was sustained, both before and after the heard name. The findings are discussed in terms of the visual and cognitive processes that may depend on clean sensory input for learning and also on the sensory-motor, cognitive, and social processes that may create these optimal visual moments for learning.
Greater strengths of character and recovery from illness
Strengths of character, orientations to happiness, and life satisfaction
Creative self-efficacy: The influence of affective states and social persuasion as antecedents and imagination and divergent thinking as consequences
Curiosity about people: The development of a social curiosity measure in adults
Chapter 13 - Individual interest and its implications for understanding intrinsic motivation. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.)
The power of interest for motivation and engagement
Positive emotion and health: Going beyond the negative
Importance of lack of interest in patients with mild cognitive impairment
DOI:10.1097/JGP.0b013e31817e73db
URL
PMID:18757769
[本文引用: 1]
OBJECTIVE: Apathy is one of the most common behavioral symptoms in mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The aim of the authors' study was to examine the influence of the apathy dimensions, i.e., emotional blunting, lack of initiative, and lack of interest, on the risk of developing of Alzheimer disease (AD) in patients with MCI. DESIGN: Longitudinal study. SETTING: Fourteen French memory clinics. PARTICIPANTS: Apathy was assessed in 214 MCI patients. The main endpoint considered was the development of AD during the 3-year follow-up. MEASUREMENTS: The neuropsychiatric evaluation included the Goldberg anxiety scale and the Montgomery and Asberg Depression Rating Scale; apathy was assessed with the Apathy Inventory. RESULTS: After 3 years, 59 patients (27.2%) had developed AD. The risk of conversion to AD was significantly higher for patients with lack of interest. Using Cox analyses, controlling for age, gender and education, the difference between survival curves was significant for lack of interest. CONCLUSIONS: Lack of interest, a mild behavioral sign, could be an indicator of potential decline in MCI patients and underlines the importance of checking the cognitive status of these patients.
Adult life stage and crisis as predictors of curiosity and authenticity: Testing inferences from Erikson's lifespan theory
Emotion strengthens high-priority memory traces but weakens low-priority memory traces
DOI:10.1177/0956797613504784
URL
PMID:24311478
[本文引用: 1]
When people encounter emotional events, their memory for those events is typically enhanced. But it has been unclear how emotionally arousing events influence memory for preceding information. Does emotional arousal induce retrograde amnesia or retrograde enhancement? The current study revealed that this depends on the top-down goal relevance of the preceding information. Across three studies, we found that emotional arousal induced by one image facilitated memory for the preceding neutral item when people prioritized that neutral item. In contrast, an emotionally arousing image impaired memory for the preceding neutral item when people did not prioritize that neutral item. Emotional arousal elicited by both negative and positive pictures showed this pattern of enhancing or impairing memory for the preceding stimulus depending on its priority. These results indicate that emotional arousal amplifies the effects of top-down priority in memory formation.
Curiosity in old age: A possible key to achieving adaptive aging
DOI:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.007
URL
PMID:29545165
[本文引用: 4]
Curiosity is a fundamental part of human motivation that supports a variety of human intellectual behaviors ranging from early learning in children to scientific discovery. However, there has been little attention paid to the role of curiosity in aging populations. By bringing together broad but sparse neuroscientific and psychological literature on curiosity and related concepts (e.g., novelty seeking in older adults), we propose that curiosity, although it declines with age, plays an important role in maintaining cognitive function, mental health, and physical health in older adults. We identify the dopaminergic reward system and the noradrenergic system as the key brain systems implicated in curiosity processing and discuss how these brain systems contribute to the relationship between curiosity and adaptive aging.
Visual scanning of triangles by the human newborn
The epistemic value of curiosity
A meta-analysis of the relationship between curiosity and creativity
Connections between curiosity, flow and creativity
Early childhood curiosity and kindergarten reading and math academic achievement
DOI:10.1038/s41390-018-0039-3
URL
PMID:29884846
[本文引用: 1]
Dopamine and adaptive memory
What is interesting? Exploring the appraisal structure of interest
Appraisal components and emotion traits: Examining the appraisal basis of trait curiosity
Children's reactions to novelty: An experimental study of "curiosity motivation"
Curiosity and mortality in aging adults: A 5-year follow-up of the Western Collaborative Group Study
DOI:10.1037//0882-7974.11.3.449
URL
PMID:8893314
[本文引用: 1]
Research suggests that curiosity in older people is associated with maintaining the health of the aging central nervous system. We examined prospectively the relationship of curiosity in 1,118 community-dwelling older men to subsequent survival over a 5-year period. Curiosity was measured when the participants were a mean age of 70.6 years. Initial levels of trait and state curiosity were higher in survivors than in those who subsequently died. After adjustment for other risk factors, the state curiosity-mortality association remained significant in the Cox regression model. Ancillary analyses in 1,035 older women (M age at initial examination = 68.6 years) confirmed the pattern found in the men. State curiosity in these women was significantly associated with survival after adjustment for other risk factors. This is the first study to identify a predictive role for curiosity in the longevity of older adults.
Genetically-mediated associations between measures of childhood character and academic achievement
A neural network model of curiosity-driven infant categorization
Curiosity-based learning in infants: A neurocomputational approach
DOI:10.1111/desc.12629
URL
PMID:29071759
[本文引用: 1]
Infants are curious learners who drive their own cognitive development by imposing structure on their learning environment as they explore. Understanding the mechanisms by which infants structure their own learning is therefore critical to our understanding of development. Here we propose an explicit mechanism for intrinsically motivated information selection that maximizes learning. We first present a neurocomputational model of infant visual category learning, capturing existing empirical data on the role of environmental complexity on learning. Next we
The role of locus coeruleus in the regulation of cognitive performance
Motives underlying human curiosity
DOI:10.1038/s41562-019-0565-y URL PMID:30988480 [本文引用: 1]
Induction and relief of curiosity elicit parietal and frontal activity
Surprised-curious-confused: Epistemic emotions and knowledge exploration
The Hungry mind: Intellectual curiosity is the third pillar of academic performance
A closer look at the hippocampus and memory
DOI:10.1016/j.tics.2017.05.008
URL
PMID:28625353
[本文引用: 1]
Current interpretations of hippocampal memory function are blind to the fact that viewing behaviors are pervasive and complicate the relationships among perception, behavior, memory, and brain activity. For example, hippocampal activity and associative memory demands increase with stimulus complexity. Stimulus complexity also strongly modulates viewing. Associative processing and viewing thus are often confounded, rendering interpretation of hippocampal activity ambiguous. Similar considerations challenge many accounts of hippocampal function. To explain relationships between memory and viewing, we propose that the hippocampus supports the online memory demands necessary to guide visual exploration. The hippocampus thus orchestrates memory-guided exploration that unfolds over time to build coherent memories. This new perspective on hippocampal function harmonizes with the fact that memory formation and exploratory viewing are tightly intertwined.
The role of prior knowledge and curiosity in learning
DOI:10.3758/s13423-019-01598-6
URL
PMID:31079309
[本文引用: 1]
Recent work has argued that curiosity can improve learning. However, these studies also leave open the possibility that being on the verge of knowing can itself induce curiosity. We investigate how prior knowledge relates to curiosity and subsequent learning using a trivia question task. Curiosity in our task is best predicted by a learner's estimate of their current knowledge, more so than an objective measure of what they actually know. Learning is best predicted by both curiosity and an objective measure of knowledge. These results suggest that while curiosity is correlated with knowledge, there is only a small boost in learning from being curious. The implication is that the mechanisms that drive curiosity are not identical to those that drive learning outcomes.
Curiosity tempts indulgence
