The influence of acute stress on working memory: Physiological and psychological mechanisms

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2020.01508

Abstract

Abstract:

Acute stress is a series of physiological and psychological reaction that could help people adjust homeostasis, when their body facing changes and challenges in the external environment. Acute stress has a profound impact on cognitive processing, especially the core function working memory. However, inconsistent behavioral influence by acute stress exists in a plethora of previous studies. We therefore review the empirical results, and systematically summarize the findings. From three perspectives, methods to induce stress, working memory tasks/sub-components, and subjects’ individual differences, we can better explain the physiological and psychological mechanisms underlying the influence of acute stress on working memory. We proposed that the influence could be better understood from views of cognitive neural mechanisms. Future studies should jointly consider these extensive factors of stress and translate findings from basic research into intervention and regulation of negative effects of acute stress.

Key words: acute stress, working memory, prefrontal cortex, sympathetic nervous system, hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal axis

CLC Number:

LI Wanru, KU Yixuan. The influence of acute stress on working memory: Physiological and psychological mechanisms[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2020, 28(9): 1508-1524.

References 128

[1]	杜建政, 夏冰丽. (2009). 急性应激障碍(ASD)研究述评. 心理科学进展, 17(03), 482-488.
[2]	段海军, 王雪微, 王博韬, 王彤星, 张心如, 王子娟, 胡卫平. (2017). 急性应激: 诱发范式、测量指标及效果分析. 心理科学进展, 25(10), 1780-1790.
[3]	库逸轩. (2019). 工作记忆的认知神经机制. 生理学报, 71(1), 173-185.
[4]	刘志英, 库逸轩. (2017). 知觉表征精度对工作记忆中抑制干扰能力的影响. 心理学报, 49(10), 1247-1255.
[5]	罗跃嘉, 林婉君, 吴健辉, 秦绍正. (2013). 应激的认知神经科学研究. 生理科学进展, 44(5), 345-353.
[6]	甄珍, 秦绍正, 朱睿达, 封春亮, 刘超. (2017). 应激的脑机制及其对社会决策的影响探究. 北京师范大学学报 (自然科学版), 53(3), 372-378.
[7]	Antal, A., Fischer, T., Saiote, C., Miller, R., Chaieb, L., Wang, D. J. J., … Kirschbaum, C. (2014). Transcranial electrical stimulation modifies the neuronal response to psychosocial stress exposure: TDCS Affects Stress Response. Human Brain Mapping, 35(8), 3750-3759. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22434 URL pmid: 24382804
[8]	Arnsten, A. F. T. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 410-422. URL pmid: 19455173
[9]	Arnsten, A. F. T. (2015). Stress weakens prefrontal networks: Molecular insults to higher cognition. Nature Neuroscience, 18(10), 1376-1385. URL pmid: 26404712
[10]	Back, S. E., Waldrop, A. E., Saladin, M. E., Yeatts, S. D., Simpson, A., McRae, A. L., … Brady, K. T. (2008). Effects of gender and cigarette smoking on reactivity to psychological and pharmacological stress provocation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(5), 560-568. URL pmid: 18321653
[11]	Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(10), 829-839. URL pmid: 14523382
[12]	Baddeley, A., & Hitch, G.(1974). Working Memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47-89). New York, America: Academic Press.
[13]	Barsegyan, A., Mackenzie, S. M., Kurose, B. D., McGaugh, J. L., & Roozendaal, B. (2010). Glucocorticoids in the prefrontal cortex enhance memory consolidation and impair working memory by a common neural mechanism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(38), 16655-16660.
[14]	Becker, L., & Rohleder, N. (2019). Time course of the physiological stress response to an acute stressor and its associations with the primacy and recency effect of the serial position curve. PLoS ONE, 14(5), e0213883. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213883 URL
[15]	Bogdanov, M., & Schwabe, L. (2016). Transcranial Stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex prevents stress-induced working memory deficits. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(4), 1429-1437. URL pmid: 26818528
[16]	Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. (2005). Aging and verbal memory span: A meta-analysis. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60(5), 223-233.
[17]	Bruder, G. E., Keilp, J. G., Xu, H., Shikhman, M., Schori, E., Gorman, J. M., & Gilliam, T. C. (2005). Catechol-O- Methyltransferase (COMT) genotypes and working memory: Associations with differing cognitive operations. Biological Psychiatry, 58(11), 901-907. URL pmid: 16043133
[18]	Bryant, R. A. (2010). Acute stress disorder as a predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(2), 233-239. URL pmid: 21208593
[19]	Buckert, M., Kudielka, B. M., Reuter, M., & Fiebach, C. J. (2012). The COMT Val158Met polymorphism modulates working memory performance under acute stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(11), 1810-1821. URL pmid: 22503421
[20]	Chamine, I., & Oken, B. S. (2016). Aroma Effects on Physiologic and Cognitive Function Following Acute Stress: A Mechanism Investigation. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 22(9), 713-721. doi: 10.1089/acm.2015.0349 URL pmid: 27355279
[21]	Chong, R. Y., Uhart, M., McCaul, M. E., Johnson, E., & Wand, G. S. (2008). Whites have a more robust hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to a psychological stressor than blacks. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(2), 246-254. URL pmid: 18082975
[22]	Cornelisse, S., Joëls, M., & Smeets, T. (2011). A randomized trial on mineralocorticoid receptor blockade in men: Effects on stress responses, selective attention, and memory. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36(13), 2720-2728. doi: 10.1038/npp.2011.162 URL pmid: 21881569
[23]	Cornelisse, S., van Stegeren, A. H., & Joëls, M. (2011). Implications of psychosocial stress on memory formation in a typical male versus female student sample. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36(4), 569-578. URL pmid: 20933337
[24]	Cousijn, H., Rijpkema, M., Qin, S., van Wingen, G. A., & Fernández, G. (2012). Phasic deactivation of the medial temporal lobe enables working memory processing under stress. NeuroImage, 59(2), 1161-1167. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.027 URL pmid: 21983180
[25]	Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24(1), 87-114. doi: 10.1017/s0140525x01003922 URL pmid: 11515286
[26]	Cowan, N. (2017). The many faces of working memory and short-term storage. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(4), 1158-1170. URL pmid: 27896630
[27]	Creswell, J. D., Dutcher, J. M., Klein, W. M. P., Harris, P. R., & Levine, J. M. (2013). Self-Affirmation improves problem-solving under stress. PLoS ONE, 8(5), e62593. URL pmid: 23658751
[28]	Deiber, M.-P., Missonnier, P., Bertrand, O., Gold, G., Fazio-Costa, L., Ibañez, V., & Giannakopoulos, P. (2007). Distinction between perceptual and attentional processing in working memory tasks: A study of phase-locked and induced oscillatory brain dynamics. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(1), 158-172. URL pmid: 17214572
[29]	Duncko, R., Johnson, L., Merikangas, K., & Grillon, C. (2009). Working memory performance after acute exposure to the cold pressor stress in healthy volunteers. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 91(4), 377-381. URL pmid: 19340949
[30]	Elzinga, B. M., & Roelofs, K. (2005). Cortisol-induced impairments of working memory require acute sympathetic activation. Behavioral Neuroscience, 119(1), 98-103. URL pmid: 15727516
[31]	Fletcher, P. C., & Henson, R. N. A. (2001). Frontal lobes and human memory: Insights from functional neuroimaging. Brain, 124(5), 849-881.
[32]	Fukuda, K., Vogel, E., Mayr, U., & Awh, E. (2010). Quantity, not quality: The relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory capacity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17(5), 673-679. URL pmid: 21037165
[33]	Gärtner, M., Grimm, S., & Bajbouj, M. (2015). Frontal midline theta oscillations during mental arithmetic: Effects of stress. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 96. URL pmid: 25941479
[34]	Gärtner, M., Rohde-Liebenau, L., Grimm, S., & Bajbouj, M. (2014). Working memory-related frontal theta activity is decreased under acute stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 43, 105-113. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.02.009 URL pmid: 24703176
[35]	Gazzaley, A., & Nobre, A. C. (2012). Top-down modulation: Bridging selective attention and working memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(2), 129-135. URL pmid: 22209601
[36]	Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1994). Working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. The Frontal Loves and Neuropsychiatric Illness (pp. 71-82). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
[37]	Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1995). Cellular basis of working memory. Neuron, 14(3), 477-485. URL pmid: 7695894
[38]	Gründemann, D., Schechinger, B., Rappold, G. A., & Schömig, E. (1998). Molecular identification of the corticosterone- sensitive extraneuronal catecholamine transporter. Nature Neuroscience, 1(5), 3.
[39]	Hampson, M., Driesen, N. R., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Constable, R. T. (2006). Brain connectivity related to working memory performance. Journal of Neuroscience, 26(51), 13338-13343. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3408-06.2006 URL pmid: 17182784
[40]	Henckens, M. J. A. G., van Wingen, G. A., Joels, M., & Fernandez, G. (2011). Time-dependent corticosteroid modulation of prefrontal working memory processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(14), 5801-5806.
[41]	Hermans, E. J., Henckens, M. J. A. G., Joëls, M., & Fernández, G. (2014). Dynamic adaptation of large-scale brain networks in response to acute stressors. Trends in Neurosciences, 37(6), 304-314. URL pmid: 24766931
[42]	Hernaus, D., Quaedflieg, C. W. E. M., Offermann, J. S., Casales Santa, M. M., & van Amelsvoort, T. (2018). Neuroendocrine stress responses predict catecholamine- dependent working memory-related dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 13(1), 114-123. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsx122 URL pmid: 29087511
[43]	Herrera, A. Y., Hodis, H. N., Mack, W. J., & Mather, M. (2017). Estradiol therapy after menopause mitigates effects of stress on cortisol and working memory. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 102(12), 4457-4466. doi: 10.1210/jc.2017-00825 URL pmid: 29106594
[44]	Het, S., Ramlow, G., & Wolf, O. T. (2005). A meta-analytic review of the effects of acute cortisol administration on human memory. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(8), 771-784. URL pmid: 15919583
[45]	Holtzman, C. W., Trotman, H. D., Goulding, S. M., Ryan, A. T., MacDonald, A. N., Shapiro, D. I., … Walker, E. F. (2013). Stress and neurodevelopmental processes in the emergence of psychosis. Neuroscience, 249, 172-191. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.12.017 URL pmid: 23298853
[46]	Hood, A., Pulvers, K., & Spady, T. J. (2013). Timing and gender determine if acute pain impairs working memory performance. The Journal of Pain, 14(11), 1320-1329. URL pmid: 23972353
[47]	Hood, A., Pulvers, K., Spady, T. J., Kliebenstein, A., & Bachand, J. (2015). Anxiety mediates the effect of acute stress on working memory performance when cortisol levels are high: A moderated mediation analysis. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 28(5), 545-562. doi: 10.1080/10615806.2014.1000880 URL pmid: 25537070
[48]	Hsieh, L.-T., & Ranganath, C. (2014). Frontal midline theta oscillations during working memory maintenance and episodic encoding and retrieval. NeuroImage, 85, 721-729. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.08.003 URL pmid: 23933041
[49]	Human, R., Henry, M., Jacobs, W. J., & Thomas, K. G. F. (2018). Elevated cortisol leaves working memory unaffected in both men and women. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 299. URL pmid: 30087603
[50]	Ishizuka, K., Hillier, A., & Beversdorf, D. Q. (2007). Effect of the Cold Pressor Test on memory and cognitive flexibility. Neurocase, 13(3), 154-157. URL pmid: 17786773
[51]	Itthipuripat, S., Wessel, J. R., & Aron, A. R. (2013). Frontal theta is a signature of successful working memory manipulation. Experimental Brain Research, 224(2), 255-262. URL pmid: 23109082
[52]	Jiang, C., & Rau, P.-L. P. (2017). Working memory performance impaired after exposure to acute social stress: The evidence comes from ERPs. Neuroscience Letters, 658, 137-141. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.08.054 URL pmid: 28851617
[53]	Joëls, M., Fernandez, G., & Roozendaal, B. (2011). Stress and emotional memory: A matter of timing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(6), 280-288. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.004 URL pmid: 21571575
[54]	Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K.-M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The ‘Trier social stress test’ - A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28(1-2), 76-81. URL pmid: 8255414
[55]	Kuhlmann, S., Piel, M., & Wolf, O. T. (2005). Impaired memory retrieval after psychosocial stress in healthy young men. Journal of Neuroscience, 25(11), 2977-2982. URL pmid: 15772357
[56]	Lai, V., Theppitak, C., Makizuka, T., Higuchi, Y., Movahed, M., Kumudini, G., … Kumashiro, M. (2014). A normal intensity level of psycho-physiological stress can benefit working memory performance at high load. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 44(3), 362-367. doi: 10.1016/j.ergon.2013.11.015 URL
[57]	Lieberman, H. R., Farina, E. K., Caldwell, J., Williams, K. W., Thompson, L. A., Niro, P. J., … McClung, J. P. (2016). Cognitive function, stress hormones, heart rate and nutritional status during simulated captivity in military survival training. Physiology & Behavior, 165, 86-97. URL pmid: 27374427
[58]	Lin, C. T., King, J. T., Fan, J. W., Appaji, A., & Prasad, M. (2018). The influence of acute stress on brain dynamics during task switching activities. IEEE Access, 6, 3249-3255.
[59]	Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (2013). Visual working memory capacity: From psychophysics and neurobiology to individual differences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(8), 391-400. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.006 URL pmid: 23850263
[60]	Luethi, M., Meier, B., & Sandi, C. (2009). Stress effects on working memory, explicit memory, and implicit memory for neutral and emotional stimuli in healthy men. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 2, 5. doi: 10.3389/neuro.08.005.2008 URL pmid: 19169362
[61]	Luettgau, L., Schlagenhauf, F., & Sjoerds, Z. (2018). Acute and past subjective stress influence working memory and related neural substrates. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 96, 25-34. URL pmid: 29879562
[62]	Lupien, S. J., Gillin, C. J., & Hauger, R. L. (1999). Working memory is more sensitive than declarative memory to the acute effects of corticosteroids: A dose-response study in humans. Behavioral Neuroscience, 113(3), 420-430. doi: 10.1037//0735-7044.113.3.420 URL pmid: 10443770
[63]	Martens, M. A., Antley, A., Freeman, D., Slater, M., Harrison, P. J., & Tunbridge, E. M. (2019). It feels real: Physiological responses to a stressful virtual reality environment and its impact on working memory. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 33(10), 1264-1273. doi: 10.1177/0269881119860156 URL pmid: 31294651
[64]	Mcewen, B. S. (2004). Protection and damage from acute and chronic stress: Allostasis and allostatic overload and relevance to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032(1), 1-7. doi: 10.1196/annals.1314.001 URL
[65]	Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24(1), 167-202.
[66]	Miller, R., Weckesser, L. J., Smolka, M. N., Kirschbaum, C., & Plessow, F. (2015). Hydrocortisone accelerates the decay of iconic memory traces: On the modulation of executive and stimulus-driven constituents of sensory information maintenance. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 53, 148-158. URL pmid: 25618593
[67]	Mitchell, D. J., McNaughton, N., Flanagan, D., & Kirk, I. J. (2008). Frontal-midline theta from the perspective of hippocampal “theta”. Progress in Neurobiology, 86(3), 156-185. URL pmid: 18824212
[68]	Mohan, A., Sharma, R., & Bijlani, R. L. (2011). Effect of meditation on stress-induced changes in cognitive functions. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 17(3), 207-212. doi: 10.1089/acm.2010.0142 URL
[69]	Moran, T. P. (2016). Anxiety and working memory capacity: A meta-analysis and narrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 142(8), 831-864. URL pmid: 26963369
[70]	Morgan, C. A., Doran, A., Steffian, G., Hazlett, G., & Southwick, S. M. (2006). Stress-induced deficits in working memory and visuo-constructive abilities in special operations soldiers. Biological Psychiatry, 60(7), 722-729. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.021 URL pmid: 16934776
[71]	Morgan, C. A., Wang, S., Mason, J., Southwick, S. M., Fox, P., Hazlett, G., … Greenfield, G. (2000). Hormone profiles in humans experiencing military survival training. Biological Psychiatry, 47(10), 891-901. URL pmid: 10807962
[72]	Mujica-Parodi, L. R., Renelique, R., & Taylor, M. K. (2009). Higher body fat percentage is associated with increased cortisol reactivity and impaired cognitive resilience in response to acute emotional stress. International Journal of Obesity, 33(1), 157-165. URL pmid: 19015661
[73]	Nelson, R. J.(2005a). The endocrine system. In: An introduction to behavioral endocrinology (3rd ed., pp. 41-107). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
[74]	Nelson, R. J.(2005b). Stress. In: An introduction to behavioral endocrinology (3rd ed., pp. 669-720). Sunderland: MA: Sinauer Associates.
[75]	Niemegeers, P., de Boer, P., Schuermans, J., Dumont, G. J. H., Coppens, V., Spittaels, K., … Morrens, M. (2019). Digging deeper in the differential effects of inflammatory and psychosocial stressors in remitted depression: Effects on cognitive functioning. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 356-363. URL pmid: 30423462
[76]	Oei, N. Y. L., Everaerd, W. T. A. M., Elzinga, B. M., van Well, S., & Bermond, B. (2006). Psychosocial stress impairs working memory at high loads: An association with cortisol levels and memory retrieval. Stress, 9(3), 133-141. doi: 10.1080/10253890600965773 URL pmid: 17035163
[77]	Oei, N. Y. L., Veer, I. M., Wolf, O. T., Spinhoven, P., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., & Elzinga, B. M. (2012). Stress shifts brain activation towards ventral ‘affective’ areas during emotional distraction. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(4), 403-412. URL pmid: 21498384
[78]	Oei, N. Y. L., Tollenaar, M. S., Spinhoven, P., & Elzinga, B. M. (2009). Hydrocortisone reduces emotional distracter interference in working memory. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(9), 1284-1293. URL pmid: 19398277
[79]	Olver, J. S., Pinney, M., Maruff, P., & Norman, T. R. (2015). Impairments of spatial working memory and attention following acute psychosocial stress. Stress and Health, 31(2), 115-123. doi: 10.1002/smi.2533 URL pmid: 24395182
[80]	Ponce, P., del Arco, A., & Loprinzi, P. (2019). Physical activity versus psychological stress: effects on salivary cortisol and working memory performance. Medicina, 55(5), 119. doi: 10.3390/medicina55050119 URL
[81]	Porcelli, A. J., Cruz, D., Wenberg, K., Patterson, M. D., Biswal, B. B., & Rypma, B. (2008). The effects of acute stress on human prefrontal working memory systems. Physiology & Behavior, 95(3), 282-289. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.04.027 URL pmid: 18692209
[82]	Pryce, C. R. (2008). Postnatal ontogeny of expression of the corticosteroid receptor genes in mammalian brains: Inter- species and intra-species differences. Brain Research Reviews, 57(2), 596-605. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.08.005 URL pmid: 17916381
[83]	Qi, M., Gao, H., Guan, L., Liu, G., & Yang, J. (2016). Subjective stress, salivary cortisol, and electrophysiological responses to psychological stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 229. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00229 URL pmid: 26925026
[84]	Qi, M., Gao, H., & Liu, G. (2018). The effect of mild acute psychological stress on attention processing: An ERP study. Experimental Brain Research, 236(7), 2061-2071. doi: 10.1007/s00221-018-5283-6 URL pmid: 29748696
[85]	Qin, S., Cousijn, H., Rijpkema, M., Luo, J., Franke, B., Hermans, E. J., & Fernández, G. (2012). The effect of moderate acute psychological stress on working memory- related neural activity is modulated by a genetic variation in catecholaminergic function in humans. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6, 16. URL pmid: 22593737
[86]	Qin, S., Hermans, E. J., van Marle, H. J. F., Luo, J., & Fernández, G. (2009). Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Biological Psychiatry, 66(1), 25-32. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006 URL pmid: 19403118
[87]	Quesada, A. A., Wiemers, U. S., Schoofs, D., & Wolf, O. T. (2012). Psychosocial stress exposure impairs memory retrieval in children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(1), 125-136. URL pmid: 21696892
[88]	Ranganath, C., DeGutis, J., & D’Esposito, M. (2004). Category-specific modulation of inferior temporal activity during working memory encoding and maintenance. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 37-45. doi: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.11.017 URL pmid: 15130587
[89]	Renner, K. H., & Beversdorf, D. Q. (2010). Effects of naturalistic stressors on cognitive flexibility and working memory task performance. Neurocase, 16(4), 293-300. URL pmid: 20169503
[90]	Robinson, S. J., Sünram-Lea, S. I., Leach, J., & Owen-Lynch, P. J. (2008). The effects of exposure to an acute naturalistic stressor on working memory, state anxiety and salivary cortisol concentrations. Stress, 11(2), 115-124. doi: 10.1080/10253890701559970 URL pmid: 18311600
[91]	Roozendaal, B., Hahn, E. L., Nathan, S. V., de Quervain, D. J. F., & McGaugh, J. L. (2004). Glucocorticoid effects on memory retrieval require concurrent noradrenergic activity in the hippocampus and basolateral amygdala. Journal of Neuroscience, 24(37), 8161-8169. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2574-04.2004 URL pmid: 15371517
[92]	Sänger, J., Bechtold, L., Schoofs, D., Blaszkewicz, M., & Wascher, E. (2014). The influence of acute stress on attention mechanisms and its electrophysiological correlates. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 353. URL pmid: 25346669
[93]	Schoofs, D., Pabst, S., Brand, M., & Wolf, O. T. (2013). Working memory is differentially affected by stress in men and women. Behavioural Brain Research, 241, 144-153. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.12.004 URL pmid: 23238042
[94]	Schoofs, D., Preuß, D., & Wolf, O. T. (2008). Psychosocial stress induces working memory impairments in an n-back paradigm. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(5), 643-653. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.02.004 URL pmid: 18359168
[95]	Schoofs, D., Wolf, O. T., & Smeets, T. (2009). Cold pressor stress impairs performance on working memory tasks requiring executive functions in healthy young men. Behavioral Neuroscience, 123(5), 1066-1075. doi: 10.1037/a0016980 URL pmid: 19824773
[96]	Schwabe, L., Haddad, L., & Schachinger, H. (2008). HPA axis activation by a socially evaluated cold-pressor test. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(6), 890-895. URL pmid: 18403130
[97]	Schwabe, L., & Wolf, O. T. (2010). Emotional modulation of the attentional blink: Is there an effect of stress? Emotion, 10(2), 283-288. doi: 10.1037/a0017751 URL pmid: 20364906
[98]	Scott, J. C., Matt, G. E., Wrocklage, K. M., Crnich, C., Jordan, J., Southwick, S. M., … Schweinsburg, B. C. (2015). A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 141(1), 105-140. doi: 10.1037/a0038039 URL pmid: 25365762
[99]	Shackman, A. J., Maxwell, J. S., McMenamin, B. W., Greischar, L. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2011). Stress potentiates early and attenuates late stages of visual processing. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(3), 1156-1161. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3384-10.2011 URL pmid: 21248140
[100]	Shansky, R. M. (2019). Are hormones a “female problem” for animal research? Science, 364(6443), 825-826. URL pmid: 31147505
[101]	Shields, G. S., Bonner, J. C., & Moons, W. G. (2015). Does cortisol influence core executive functions? A meta-analysis of acute cortisol administration effects on working memory, inhibition, and set-shifting. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 58, 91-103. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.04.017 URL pmid: 25973565
[102]	Shields, G. S., Sazma, M. A., McCullough, A. M., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2017). The effects of acute stress on episodic memory: A meta-analysis and integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 143(6), 636-675. doi: 10.1037/bul0000100 URL pmid: 28368148
[103]	Shields, G. S., Sazma, M. A., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2016). The effects of acute stress on core executive functions: A meta-analysis and comparison with cortisol. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 651-668. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.038 URL pmid: 27371161
[104]	Shields, G. S., Trainor, B. C., Lam, J. C. W., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2016). Acute stress impairs cognitive flexibility in men, not women. Stress, 19(5), 542-546. doi: 10.1080/10253890.2016.1192603 URL pmid: 27230831
[105]	Smeets, T. (2011). Acute stress impairs memory retrieval independent of time of day. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36(4), 495-501. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.08.001 URL pmid: 20800361
[106]	Smeets, T., Jelicic, M., & Merckelbach, H. (2006). The effect of acute stress on memory depends on word valence. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 62(1), 30-37. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2005.11.007 URL pmid: 16388863
[107]	Smyth, J., Zawadzki, M., & Gerin, W. (2013). Stress and disease: A structural and functional analysis: Chronic stress and health. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(4), 217-227. doi: 10.1111/spco.2013.7.issue-4 URL
[108]	Stauble, M. R., Thompson, L. A., & Morgan, G. (2013). Increases in cortisol are positively associated with gains in encoding and maintenance working memory performance in young men. Stress-the International Journal on the Biology of Stress, 16(4), 402-410. doi: 10.3109/10253890.2013.780236 URL
[109]	Subhani, A. R., Kamel, N., Mohamad Saad, M. N., Nandagopal, N., Kang, K., & Malik, A. S. (2018). Mitigation of stress: New treatment alternatives. Cognitive Neurodynamics, 12(1), 1-20. doi: 10.1007/s11571-017-9460-2 URL pmid: 29435084
[110]	Taverniers, J., Van Ruysseveldt, J., Smeets, T., & von Grumbkow, J. (2010). High-intensity stress elicits robust cortisol increases, and impairs working memory and visuo-spatial declarative memory in Special Forces candidates: A field experiment. Stress, 13(4), 324-334. doi: 10.3109/10253891003642394 URL
[111]	Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107(3), 411-429. doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.107.3.411 URL pmid: 10941275
[112]	Terfehr, K., Wolf, O. T., Schlosser, N., Fernando, S. C., Otte, C., Muhtz, C., … Wingenfeld, K. (2011). Hydrocortisone impairs working memory in healthy humans, but not in patients with major depressive disorder. Psychopharmacology, 215(1), 71-79. URL pmid: 21161185
[113]	van Ast, V. A., Spicer, J., Smith, E. E., Schmer-Galunder, S., Liberzon, I., Abelson, J. L., & Wager, T. D. (2014). Brain mechanisms of social threat effects on working memory. Cerebral Cortex, 26(2), 544-556. URL pmid: 25249408
[114]	van Marle, H. J. F., Hermans, E. J., Qin, S., & Fernández, G. (2009). From specificity to sensitivity: How acute stress affects amygdala processing of biologically salient stimuli. Biological Psychiatry, 66(7), 649-655. URL pmid: 19596123
[115]	Veltman, D. J., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Maintenance versus manipulation in verbal working memory revisited: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 18(2), 247-256. doi: 10.1016/s1053-8119(02)00049-6 URL pmid: 12595179
[116]	Wager, T. D., & Smith, E. E. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of working memory: A meta-analysis. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3(4), 255-274.
[117]	Wang, J., Rao, H., Wetmore, G. S., Furlan, P. M., Korczykowski, M., Dinges, D. F., & Detre, J. A. (2005). Perfusion functional MRI reveals cerebral blood flow pattern under psychological stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(49), 17804-17809.
[118]	Weckesser, L. J., Alexander, N. C., Kirschbaum, C., Mennigen, E., & Miller, R. (2016). Hydrocortisone counteracts adverse stress effects on dual-task performance by improving visual sensory processes. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(11), 1784-1803. URL pmid: 27378327
[119]	Weerda, R., Muehlhan, M., Wolf, O. T., & Thiel, C. M. (2010). Effects of acute psychosocial stress on working memory related brain activity in men. Human Brain Mapping, 31(9), 1418-1429. URL pmid: 20127868
[120]	Wells, E. L., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., Schaefer, H. S., & Sarver, D. E. (2018). Assessing working memory in children with ADHD: Minor administration and scoring changes may improve digit span backward’s construct validity. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 72, 166-178. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.024 URL pmid: 29156389
[121]	Wingenfeld, K., & Wolf, O. T. (2015). Effects of cortisol on cognition in major depressive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder—2014 Curt Richter Award Winner. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 51, 282-295. URL pmid: 25462901
[122]	Wingenfeld, K., Wolf, S., Krieg, J.-C., & Lautenbacher, S. (2011). Working memory performance and cognitive flexibility after dexamethasone or hydrocortisone administration in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 217(3), 323-329. doi: 10.1007/s00213-011-2286-4 URL pmid: 21484237
[123]	Wirth, M. M. (2015). Hormones, Stress, and Cognition: The Effects of Glucocorticoids and Oxytocin on Memory. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 1(2), 177-201. URL pmid: 25893159
[124]	Woodcock, E. A., Greenwald, M. K., Khatib, D., Diwadkar, V. A., & Stanley, J. A. (2019). Pharmacological stress impairs working memory performance and attenuates dorsolateral prefrontal cortex glutamate modulation. NeuroImage, 186, 437-445. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.11.017 URL pmid: 30458306
[125]	Yurtsever, T., Schilling, T. M., Köelsch, M., Turner, J. D., Meyer, J., Schächinger, H., & Schote, A. B. (2016). The acute and temporary modulation of PERIOD genes by hydrocortisone in healthy subjects. Chronobiology International, 33(9), 1222-1234. doi: 10.1080/07420528.2016.1211668 URL pmid: 27485028
[126]	Zandara, M., Garcia-Lluch, M., Pulopulos, M. M., Hidalgo, V., Villada, C., & Salvador, A. (2016). Acute stress and working memory: The role of sex and cognitive stress appraisal. Physiology & Behavior, 164, 336-344. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.022 URL pmid: 27321755
[127]	Zhao, L.-Y., Shi, J., Zhang, X.-L., Epstein, D. H., Zhang, X.-Y., Liu, Y., … Lu, L. (2010). Stress enhances retrieval of drug-related memories in abstinent heroin addicts. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(3), 720-726. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.179 URL pmid: 19890257
[128]	Zylberberg, A. (2009). Neurophysiological bases of exponential sensory decay and top-down memory retrieval: A model. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 3, 4. doi: 10.3389/neuro.10.004.2009 URL pmid: 19325713