“一个序曲”与“两个阶段”：智慧心理学近50年研究历程的写照

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00721

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

为了更好地继往开来, 首次将智慧心理学近50年的研究历史分为“一个序曲”和“两个阶段”。其中, Clayton用实证法研究智慧心理的序曲, 开始时间至迟不晚于1976年, 戛然而止于1982年, 其特点是“昙花一现”。智慧心理学研究的第一阶段, 时间始自20世纪80年代早期, 延续至21世纪初, 其特点是“柏林智慧模式一花独秀, 新皮亚杰主义智慧观和智慧的平衡理论作为两片绿叶相衬托”。智慧心理学研究的第二阶段, 时间始自2004年, 延续至现在, 其特点是“百花齐放”, 它主要体现在两方面：一是智慧被视为比知识更重要的东西, 出现了更多不同的智慧理论和测量智慧工具; 二是兴起了多个研究热点, 进一步拓宽了智慧心理学的研究领域。回顾智慧心理学近50年的研究历程, 可以得到两个结论：一是, 近50年来, 对智慧心理学的研究经历了一个从自发到自觉、从分散到有组织、从零星探讨到系统研究的发展过程; 二是, 研究对象从智慧者的特征到智慧特征, 再到智慧者的特征, 再到结合智慧者的特征和智慧特征来研究智慧, 经历了一个螺旋上升的过程。展望未来, 宜在两个方面推进智慧心理学的研究：一是, 须尽快开发研究智慧的成熟实验范式, 并揭示智慧的脑机制; 二是, 须积极开展智慧的应用研究。

关键词: 内隐三维智慧观, 柏林智慧模式, 新皮亚杰主义智慧观, 智慧的平衡理论, 外显三维智慧模型

Abstract:

The psychological study of wisdom is becoming more and more widespread. To better carry forward the past and usher in the future, the research history of wisdom psychology in the past 50 years is comprehensively reviewed, critically drawing on the work of Sternberg and Glück. The symphony of the development of wisdom psychology consists of “one prelude” and “two movements”. Specifically, “one prelude” refers to Vivian Clayton’s wisdom research, which started no later than 1976 and ended abruptly in 1982, when Clayton left academia. Clayton elevated the concept of wisdom to scientific status for the first time, paving the way for empirical research on wisdom psychology. The brief period of Clayton’s academic career devoted to the study of wisdom psychology ignited the enthusiasm of scholars for research on wisdom psychology. The “two movements” are “one flower blooming with two buds” and “all flowers bloom together”. The first stage of wisdom psychology, begun in the early 1980s, was characterized by the leading position of the Berlin wisdom model, which shed light on an expert knowledge system dealing with the fundamental pragmatics of life, as well as neo-Piagetian theory and the balance theory of wisdom by Robert J. Sternberg. At that time, the uniqueness and importance of wisdom were uncovered, and these three theories together formed a solid theoretical foundation for the future development of wisdom psychology. The second stage of wisdom psychology began with Monika Ardelt’s critical review of the Berlin group’s definition, operationalization, and particular measurement of wisdom in 2004 and has continued to this day. It is characterized by vigorous development in the field of wisdom psychology and fruitful results, mainly demonstrated by two aspects. First, wisdom was treated as more important than knowledge. Accordingly, a variety of theories and measurements of wisdom were presented, promoting the development of wisdom research, such as the explicit three-dimensional wisdom model (3D-WM), the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of wisdom, wisdom as self-transcendence, and the two-dimensional theory of wisdom that integrates virtue and wit. Second, a wide array of research hotspots of wisdom emerged, which further deepened and broadened the field of wisdom psychology. To elaborate, research of wisdom psychology nowadays focuses on the controversies and resolutions of wisdom connotations, wise reasoning, the relationship between wisdom and self, wisdom education, and so forth. In reviewing the research history of wisdom psychology over the past half-century, two conclusions can be drawn. First, the study of wisdom psychology has evolved from spontaneity to consciousness, from dispersion to organization, and from sporadic discussion to systematic research. Second, the research object of wisdom has gone through an alternate spiral change process that from characteristics of the wise person to characteristics of wisdom per se, and back to characteristics of the wise person, until finally, integration of the two. Furthermore, future research on wisdom psychology should be promoted in two areas. One aspect is to develop a maturely experimental paradigm for studying wisdom directly and revealing its brain mechanism. The other is to pay more attention to the study of applying wisdom to real-life situations.

Key words: implicit three-dimensional wisdom view, Berlin wisdom model, neo-Piagetian theory, the balance theory of wisdom, explicit three-dimensional wisdom model

中图分类号:

B848

张凯丽, 郑红, 汪凤炎. (2023). “一个序曲”与“两个阶段”：智慧心理学近50年研究历程的写照. 心理科学进展 , 31(5), 721-735.

ZHANG Kaili, ZHENG Hong, WANG Fengyan. (2023). “One prelude” and “two movements”: A portrayal of the research process of wisdom psychology in the past 50 years. Advances in Psychological Science, 31(5), 721-735.

参考文献 105

[1]	陈浩彬, 汪凤炎. (2013). 智慧:结构、类型、测量及与相关变量的关系. 心理科学进展, 21(1), 108-117. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2013.00108
[2]	陈浩彬, 汪凤炎. (2016). 人慧与物慧:基于智慧描述词与提名智慧者的分类. 心理学探新, 36(3), 203-210.
[3]	陈浩彬, 汪凤炎. (2020). 中国文化中的智慧结构探析. 心理学探新, 40(1), 42-49.
[4]	傅绪荣, 汪凤炎. (2020). 整合智慧量表的编制及信效度检验. 心理学探新, 40(1), 50-57.
[5]	汪凤炎. (2022). 关于智慧教育的三个基本问题. 阅江学刊, (1), 85-97.
[6]	汪凤炎, 魏新东. (2018). 以人工智慧应对人工智能的威胁. 自然辩证法通讯, 40(4), 9-14.
[7]	汪凤炎, 郑红. (2009). “知而获智”观:一种经典的中式智慧观. 南京师范大学学报(社会科学版), (4), 104-110.
[8]	汪凤炎, 郑红. (2010). 五种西式经典智慧观的内涵及得失. 自然辩证法通讯, 32(3), 93-97.
[9]	汪凤炎, 郑红. (2014). 智慧心理学的理论探索与应用研究. 上海教育出版社.
[10]	汪凤炎, 郑红. (2015). 品德与才智一体:智慧的本质与范畴. 南京社会科学, (3), 127-133.
[11]	汪凤炎, 郑红. (2018). 论愚蠢的德才欠缺理论. 心理学探新, 38(5), 387-392.
[12]	汪凤炎, 郑红. (编著). (2022). 智慧心理学. 上海教育出版社.
[13]	许文涛, 汪凤炎. (2022). 智者一定自我超越吗?智慧与自我超越的关系. 心理科学, 45(4), 778-784.
[14]	Achenbaum, W. A. (2004). Wisdom’s vision of relations. Human Development, 47(5), 300-303. doi: 10.1159/000079157 URL
[15]	Aldwin, C. M. (2009). Gender and wisdom: A brief overview. Research in Human Development, 6(1), 1-8. doi: 10.1080/15427600902779347 URL
[16]	Ardelt, M. (1994). Wisdom in the later years: A life course approach to successful aging (Unpublished doctorial dissertation). The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
[17]	Ardelt, M. (1997). Wisdom and life satisfaction in old age. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 52(1), 15-27.
[18]	Ardelt, M. (2000). Antecedents and effects of wisdom in old age: A longitudinal perspective on aging well. Research on Aging, 22(4), 360-394. doi: 10.1177/0164027500224003 URL
[19]	Ardelt, M. (2003). Empirical assessment of a three- dimensional wisdom scale. Research on Aging, 25(3), 275-324. doi: 10.1177/0164027503025003004 URL
[20]	Ardelt, M. (2004a). Wisdom as expert knowledge system: A critical review of a contemporary operationalization of an ancient concept. Human Development, 47(5), 257-285. doi: 10.1159/000079154 URL
[21]	Ardelt, M. (2004b). Where can wisdom be found? A reply to the commentaries by Baltes and Kunzmann, Sternberg, and Achenbaum. Human Development, 47(5), 304-307. doi: 10.1159/000079158 URL
[22]	Ardelt, M. (2010). Age, experience and the beginning of wisdom. In D.Dannefer & C.Phillipson (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of social gerontology (pp. 306-316), Newbury Park: SAGE Publications Ltd.
[23]	Ardelt, M. (2011). Wisdom, age, and well-being. In K. W.Schaie & S. L.Willis (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (7th ed., pp. 279-291). Elsevier.
[24]	Ardelt, M., & Bruya, B. (2021). Three-dimensional wisdom and perceived stress among college students. Journal of Adult Development, 28, 93-105. doi: 10.1007/s10804-020-09358-w
[25]	Baltes, P. B., & Kunzmann, U. (2004). The two faces of wisdom: Wisdom as a general theory of knowledge and judgment about excellence in mind and virtue vs. wisdom as everyday realization in people and products. Human Development, 47(5), 290-299. doi: 10.1159/000079156 URL
[26]	Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (1990). Toward a psychology of wisdom and its ontogenesis. In R. J.Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 87-120). Cambridge University Press.
[27]	Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (2008). The fascination of wisdom: Its nature, ontogeny, and function. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(1), 56-64. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x pmid: 26158670
[28]	Baltes, P. B., Smith, J., & Staudinger, U. M. (1992). Wisdom and successful aging. In TheoB. Sonderegger (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 39, pp. 123-167). University of Nebraska Press.
[29]	Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (1993). The search for a psychology of wisdom. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(3), 75-80. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770914 URL
[30]	Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. American Psychologist, 55(1), 122-136. pmid: 11392856
[31]	Bang, H., & Montgomery, D. (2013). Wisdom and ego-identity for Korean and American late adolescents. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(5), 807-831. doi: 10.1177/0022022112466941 URL
[32]	Bang, H., & Zhou, Y. (2014). The function of wisdom dimensions in ego-identity development among Chinese university students. International Journal of Psychology, 49(6), 434-445. doi: 10.1002/ijop.12065 pmid: 25355666
[33]	Brienza, J. P., Fung, K., Santos, H. C., Bobocel, D. R., & Grossmann, I. (2018). Wisdom, bias, and balance: Toward a process-sensitive measurement of wisdom-related cognition. Journal of Personal and Social Psychology, 115(6), 1093-1126. doi: 10.1037/pspp0000171 URL
[34]	Brown, S. C., & Greene, J. A. (2006). The wisdom development scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete. Journal of College Student Development, 47(1), 1-19. doi: 10.1353/csd.2006.0002 URL
[35]	Clayton, V. (1975a). Erikson’s theory of human development as it applies to the aged: Wisdom as contradictive cognition. Human Development, 18(1-2), 119-128. doi: 10.1159/000271479 URL
[36]	Clayton, V. (1975b). An exploratory analysis of the concept of wisdom (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
[37]	Clayton, V. (1975c, October). The meaning of wisdom to young and old in contemporary society. The Meeting of the Gerontological Society, Louisville.
[38]	Clayton, V. (1976). A multidimensional scaling analysis of the concept of wisdom (Unpublished doctorial dissertation). University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
[39]	Clayton, V. (1982). Wisdom and intelligence: The nature and function of knowledge in the later years. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 15(4), 315-321. pmid: 7183572
[40]	Clayton, V., & Birren, J. E. (1980). The development of wisdom across the life span:A reexamination of an ancient topic. In P. B. Baltes and O. R. Brim (Eds.), Life span development and behavior (vol. 3, pp. 103-135). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
[41]	Druckerman, P. (2018). There are no grown-ups: A midlife coming-of-age story. London: Penguin Press.
[42]	Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
[43]	Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International Universities Press.
[44]	Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. Lectures on the ethical implications of psychoanalytic insight. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
[45]	Ferrari, M., & Kim, J. (2019). Educating for wisdom. In R. J.Sternberg, & J.Glück (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of wisdom (pp. 347-371). Cambridge University Press.
[46]	Ferrari, M., & Potworowski, G. (2008). Teaching for wisdom: Cross-cultural perspectives on fostering wisdom. Berlin: Springer Dordrecht.
[47]	Glück, J., König, S., Naschenweng, K., Redzanowski, U., Dorner, L., Straßer, I., & Wiedermann, W. (2013). How to measure wisdom: Content, reliability, and validity of five measures. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 405. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00405 pmid: 23874310
[48]	Glück, J., & Weststrate, N. M. (2022). The wisdom researchers and the elephant: An integrative model of wise behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 26(4), 342-374. doi: 10.1177/10888683221094650 URL
[49]	Grossmann, I. (2017). Wisdom in context. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(2), 233-257. doi: 10.1177/1745691616672066 pmid: 28346113
[50]	Grossmann, I., Dorfman, A., Oakes, H., Santos, H. C., Vohs, K. D., & Scholer, A. A. (2021). Training for wisdom: The distanced-self-reflection diary method. Psychological Science, 32(3), 381-394. doi: 10.1177/0956797620969170 pmid: 33539229
[51]	Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2014). Exploring Solomon’s paradox: Self-distancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults. Psychological Science, 25(8), 1571-1580. doi: 10.1177/0956797614535400 pmid: 24916084
[52]	Grossmann, I., Na, J. K., Varnum, M. E. W., Kitayama, S., & Nisbett, R. E. (2013). A route to well-being: Intelligence versus wise reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(3), 944-953. doi: 10.1037/a0029560 URL
[53]	Grossmann, I., Na, J. K., Varnum, M. E. W., Park, D. C., Kitayama, S., & Nisbett, R. E. (2010). Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(16), 7246-7250. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1001715107 pmid: 20368436
[54]	Grossmann, I., Oakes, H., & Santos, H. C. (2019). Wise reasoning benefits from emodiversity, irrespective of emotional intensity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(5), 805-823. doi: 10.1037/xge0000543 URL
[55]	Grossmann, I., Weststrate, N. M., Ardelt, M., Brienza, J. P., Dong, M., Ferrari, M., … Vervaeke, J. (2020). The science of wisdom in a polarized world: Knowns and unknowns. Psychological Inquiry, 31(2), 103-133. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2020.1750917 URL
[56]	Guilford, J. (1954). Psychometric methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[57]	Hall, S. G. (1922). Senescence, the last half of life. New York: D.Appleton and Company.
[58]	Hall, S. S. (2010). Wisdom: From philosophy to neuroscience. New York: Knopf Press.
[59]	Hu, C. S., Huang, J. H., Ferrari, M., Wang, Q. D., Xie, D., & Zhang, H. T. (2019). Sadder but wiser: Emotional reactions and wisdom in a simulated suicide intervention. International Journal of Psychology, 54(6), 791-799. doi: 10.1002/ijop.12536 pmid: 30288744
[60]	Jason, L. A., Reichler, A., King, C., Madsen, D., Camacho, J., & Marchese, W. (2001). The measurement of wisdom: A preliminary effort. Journal of Community Psychology, 29(5), 585-598. doi: 10.1002/(ISSN)1520-6629 URL
[61]	Jeste, D. V., Graham, S. A., Nguyen, T. T., Depp, C. A., Lee, E. E., & Kim, H. C. (2020). Beyond artificial intelligence: Exploring artificial wisdom. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(8), 993-1001. doi: 10.1017/S1041610220000927 pmid: 32583762
[62]	Karami, S., Ghahremani, M., Parra-Martinez, F. A., & Gentry, M. (2020). A polyhedron model of wisdom: A systematic review of the wisdom studies in psychology, management and leadership, and education. Roeper Review, 42(4), 241-257. doi: 10.1080/02783193.2020.1815263 URL
[63]	Kim, S., & Knight, B. G. (2015). Adaptation of the three- dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS) for the Korean cultural context. International Psychogeriatrics, 27(2), 267-278. doi: 10.1017/S1041610214002178 URL
[64]	Kitchener, K. S., & Brenner, H. G. (1990). Wisdom and reflective judgment:Knowing in the face of uncertainty. In R. J.Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 212-220). Cambridge University Press.
[65]	Kross, E., & Grossmann, I. (2012). Boosting wisdom: Distance from the self-enhances wise reasoning, attitudes, and behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(1), 43-48. doi: 10.1037/a0024158 URL
[66]	Labouvie-Vief, G. (1980). Beyond formal operations: Uses and limits of pure logic in life-span development. Human Development, 23(3), 141-161. pmid: 7364432
[67]	Labouvie-Vief, G. (1990). Wisdom as integrated thought:Historical and developmental perspectives. In R. J.Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 52-83). Cambridge University Press.
[68]	Levenson, M. R., Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., & Shiraishi, R. W. (2005). Self-transcendence: Conceptualization and measurement. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 60(2), 127-143. pmid: 15801386
[69]	Mickler, C., & Staudinger, U. M. (2008). Personal wisdom: Validation and age-related differences of a performance measure. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 787-799. doi: 10.1037/a0013928 pmid: 19140650
[70]	Naranjo, C. (1972). The one quest. New York: The Viking Press.
[71]	Nonaka, I., Chia, R., Holt, R., & Peltokorpi, V. (2014). Wisdom, management and organization. Management Learning, 45(4), 365-376. doi: 10.1177/1350507614542901 URL
[72]	Pasupathi, M., Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). Seeds of wisdom: Adolescents’ knowledge and judgment about difficult life problems. Developmental Psychology, 37(3), 351-361. pmid: 11370911
[73]	Piaget, J. (2001). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge.
[74]	Riegel, K. F. (1973). Dialectical operations: The final period of cognitive development. Human Development, 16(5), 346-370. pmid: 4591158
[75]	Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1990). Wisdom-related knowledge: Age/Cohort differences in response to life-planning problems. Developmental Psychology, 26(3), 494-505. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.26.3.494 URL
[76]	Staudinger, U. M., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1994). Manual for the assessment of wisdom-related knowledge (Technical Report No. 46). Berlin: Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education.
[77]	Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(3), 607-627. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607 URL
[78]	Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Intelligence, wisdom, and creativity: Three is better than one. Educational Psychologist, 21(3), 175-190. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep2103_2 URL
[79]	Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1990a). Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. Cambridge University Press.
[80]	Sternberg, R. J. (1990b). Wisdom and its relations to intelligence and creativity. In R. J.Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 142-159). Cambridge University Press.
[81]	Sternberg, R. J. (1998). A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2(4), 347-365. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.4.347 URL
[82]	Sternberg, R. J. (2001a). Why schools should teach for wisdom: The balance theory of wisdom in educational settings. Educational Psychologist, 36(4), 227-245. doi: 10.1207/S15326985EP3604_2 URL
[83]	Sternberg, R. J. (2001b). How wise is it to teach for wisdom? A reply to five critiques. Educational Psychologist, 36(4), 269-272. doi: 10.1207/S15326985EP3604_8 URL
[84]	Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2002). Why smart people can be so stupid? New Haven: Yale University Press.
[85]	Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Words to the wise about wisdom? A commentary on Ardelt’s critique of Baltes. Human Development, 47(5), 286-289. doi: 10.1159/000079155 URL
[86]	Sternberg, R. J. (2013). Reform education: Teach wisdom and ethics. Phi Delta Kappan, 94(7), 45-47.
[87]	Sternberg, R. J. (2018). Wisdom, foolishness, and toxicity in human development. Research in Human Development, 15(3-4), 200-210. doi: 10.1080/15427609.2018.1491216 URL
[88]	Sternberg, R. J. (2019). Four ways to conceive of wisdom: Wisdom as a function of person, situation, person/situation interaction, or action. The Journal of Value Inquiry, 53, 479-485. doi: 10.1007/s10790-019-09708-2
[89]	Sternberg, R. J., & Glück, J. (Eds.). (2019). The Cambridge handbook of wisdom. Cambridge University Press.
[90]	Sternberg, R. J., & Glück, J. (2022). Wisdom: The psychology of wise thoughts, words, and deeds. Cambridge University Press.
[91]	Sternberg, R. J., & Hagen, E. S. (2019). Teaching for wisdom. In R. J.Sternberg, & J.Glück (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of wisdom (pp. 372-406). Cambridge University Press.
[92]	Sternberg, R. J., & Jordan, J. (Eds.). (2005). A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives. Cambridge University Press.
[93]	Sternberg, R. J., & Karami, S. (2021). What is wisdom? A unified 6P framework. Review of General Psychology, 25(2), 134-151. doi: 10.1177/1089268020985509 URL
[94]	Sternberg, R. J., Nusbaum, H. C., & Glück, J. (Eds.). (2019). Applying wisdom to contemporary world problems. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
[95]	Thomas, M. L., Bangen, K. J., Ardelt, M., & Jeste, D. V. (2017). Development of a 12-item abbreviated three- dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS-12): Item selection and psychometric properties. Assessment, 24(1), 1-12.
[96]	Thomas, M. L., Bangen, K. J., Palmer, B. W., Martin, A. S., Avanzino, J. A., Depp, C. A., … Jeste, D. V. (2019). A new scale for assessing wisdom based on common domains and a neurobiological model: The San Diego Wisdom Scale (SD-WISE). Journal of Psychiatric Research, 108(40), 40-47. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.09.005 URL
[97]	Wang, F. Y., & Zheng, H. (2012). A new theory of wisdom: Integrating intelligence and morality. Psychology Research, 2(1), 64-75.
[98]	Wang, Z. D., Wang, Y. M., Li, K., Shi, J., & Wang, F. Y. (2022). The comparison of the wisdom view in Chinese and western cultures. Current Psychology, 41(11), 8032-8043. doi: 10.1007/s12144-020-01226-w
[99]	Webster, J. D. (2003). An exploratory analysis of a self- assessed wisdom scale. Journal of Adult Development, 10(1), 13-22. doi: 10.1023/A:1020782619051 URL
[100]	Webster, J. D. (2007). Measuring the character strength of wisdom. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 65(2), 163-183. pmid: 17957986
[101]	Webster, J. D. (2010). Wisdom and positive psychosocial values in young adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 17(2), 70-80. doi: 10.1007/s10804-009-9081-z URL
[102]	Webster, J. D., Weststrate, N. M., Ferrari, M., Munroe, M., & Pierce, T. W. (2018). Wisdom and meaning in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 6(2), 118-136. doi: 10.1177/2167696817707662 URL
[103]	Xiong, M. M., & Wang, F. Y. (2022). Manifestations of wisdom in ancient China: An analysis of the Zhinang Quanji. Culture & Psychology, 28(4), 506-526.
[104]	Yang, S. Y. (2011). Wisdom displayed through leadership: Exploring leadership-related wisdom. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(4), 616-632. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.05.004 URL
[105]	Zhang, K. L., Shi, J., Wang, F. Y., & Ferrari, M. (2022). Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6.