Paradox of emphasizing effort: How emphasizing effort discourages pursuit of STEM fields

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0918

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WANG Zhen, ZUO Guoguo, GUAN Jian. (2026). Paradox of emphasizing effort: How emphasizing effort discourages pursuit of STEM fields. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 58(5), 918-934.

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URL: https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2026.0918

https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/Y2026/V58/I5/918

Figures/Tables 11

Table 1 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 1

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
	Condition	3.65 (1.22)	4.31 (0.85)		21.55	1, 213	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male	Unidentified
	Target’s gender	3.49 (1.14)	4.29 (1.06)	4.13 (0.95)	11.94	2, 213	< 0.001	0.10
	Condition × Target’s gender				0.02	2, 213	0.98	0.00

Table 1 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 1

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
	Condition	3.65 (1.22)	4.31 (0.85)		21.55	1, 213	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male	Unidentified
	Target’s gender	3.49 (1.14)	4.29 (1.06)	4.13 (0.95)	11.94	2, 213	< 0.001	0.10
	Condition × Target’s gender				0.02	2, 213	0.98	0.00

Table 2 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 2

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.51 (1.22)	4.46 (0.95)	56.99	1, 308	< 0.001	0.16
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.71 (1.19)	4.13 (1.17)	10.04	1, 308	0.002	0.03
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.04	1, 308	0.85	0.00
Intentions	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.27 (1.24)	4.12 (0.95)	44.04	1, 308	< 0.001	0.13
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.46 (1.19)	3.81 (1.17)	7.06	1, 308	0.008	0.02
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.06	1, 308	0.81	0.00

Table 2 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 2

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.51 (1.22)	4.46 (0.95)	56.99	1, 308	< 0.001	0.16
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.71 (1.19)	4.13 (1.17)	10.04	1, 308	0.002	0.03
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.04	1, 308	0.85	0.00
Intentions	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.27 (1.24)	4.12 (0.95)	44.04	1, 308	< 0.001	0.13
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.46 (1.19)	3.81 (1.17)	7.06	1, 308	0.008	0.02
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.06	1, 308	0.81	0.00

Table 3 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 3

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.94 (1.54)	4.84 (1.27)	26.31	1, 256	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.35 (1.44)	4.47 (1.51)	0.26	1, 256	0.61	0.001
	Condition × Target’s gender			1.36	1, 256	0.24	0.005
Intentions	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.37 (1.51)	5.04 (1.05)	17.76	1, 256	< 0.001	0.07
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.68 (1.24)	4.75 (1.43)	0.11	1, 256	0.74	0.00
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.34	1, 256	0.56	0.001
Interest	Condition	Effort	Control
		5.55 (1.63)	6.14 (1.16)	10.97	1, 256	0.001	0.04
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		5.71 (1.35)	5.99 (1.50)	2.23	1, 256	0.14	0.009
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.02	1, 256	0.89	0.00
Belonging	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.01 (1.29)	4.60 (0.90)	18.49	1, 256	< 0.001	0.07
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.21 (1.22)	4.41 (1.06)	1.81	1, 256	0.18	0.007
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.44	1, 256	0.51	0.002
Motivation	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.25 (1.21)	4.63 (0.90)	8.07	1, 256	0.005	0.03
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.32 (1.12)	4.58 (1.01)	3.84	1, 256	0.05	0.02
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.50	1, 256	0.48	0.002

Table 3 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 3

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.94 (1.54)	4.84 (1.27)	26.31	1, 256	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.35 (1.44)	4.47 (1.51)	0.26	1, 256	0.61	0.001
	Condition × Target’s gender			1.36	1, 256	0.24	0.005
Intentions	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.37 (1.51)	5.04 (1.05)	17.76	1, 256	< 0.001	0.07
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.68 (1.24)	4.75 (1.43)	0.11	1, 256	0.74	0.00
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.34	1, 256	0.56	0.001
Interest	Condition	Effort	Control
		5.55 (1.63)	6.14 (1.16)	10.97	1, 256	0.001	0.04
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		5.71 (1.35)	5.99 (1.50)	2.23	1, 256	0.14	0.009
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.02	1, 256	0.89	0.00
Belonging	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.01 (1.29)	4.60 (0.90)	18.49	1, 256	< 0.001	0.07
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.21 (1.22)	4.41 (1.06)	1.81	1, 256	0.18	0.007
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.44	1, 256	0.51	0.002
Motivation	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.25 (1.21)	4.63 (0.90)	8.07	1, 256	0.005	0.03
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.32 (1.12)	4.58 (1.01)	3.84	1, 256	0.05	0.02
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.50	1, 256	0.48	0.002

Table 4 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 4

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.57 (1.26)	4.79 (1.20)	56.39	1, 243	< 0.001	0.19
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.94 (1.25)	4.42 (1.45)	4.42	1, 243	0.04	0.02
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.83	1, 243	0.36	0.003
Intentions	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.75 (1.49)	4.89 (1.37)	34.39	1, 243	< 0.001	0.12
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.94 (1.57)	4.71 (1.41)	12.70	1, 243	< 0.001	0.05
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.002	1, 243	0.97	0.00
Interest	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.95 (1.65)	6.03 (1.56)	24.25	1, 243	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		5.07 (1.71)	5.92 (1.56)	12.82	1, 243	< 0.001	0.05
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.06	1, 243	0.81	0.00
Belonging	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.89 (1.11)	4.60 (1.07)	22.58	1, 243	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.02 (1.14)	4.48 (1.10)	7.44	1, 243	0.007	0.03
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.003	1, 243	0.96	0.00
Motivation	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.00 (1.21)	4.67 (1.01)	18.95	1, 243	< 0.001	0.07
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.05 (1.19)	4.63 (1.06)	13.38	1, 243	< 0.001	0.05
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.31	1, 243	0.58	0.001

Table 4 Results of ANOVA on Outcomes for Study 4

Outcomes	Predictors	M (SD)	M (SD)	F	df	p	η²_p
Suggestion	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.57 (1.26)	4.79 (1.20)	56.39	1, 243	< 0.001	0.19
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.94 (1.25)	4.42 (1.45)	4.42	1, 243	0.04	0.02
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.83	1, 243	0.36	0.003
Intentions	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.75 (1.49)	4.89 (1.37)	34.39	1, 243	< 0.001	0.12
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		3.94 (1.57)	4.71 (1.41)	12.70	1, 243	< 0.001	0.05
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.002	1, 243	0.97	0.00
Interest	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.95 (1.65)	6.03 (1.56)	24.25	1, 243	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		5.07 (1.71)	5.92 (1.56)	12.82	1, 243	< 0.001	0.05
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.06	1, 243	0.81	0.00
Belonging	Condition	Effort	Control
		3.89 (1.11)	4.60 (1.07)	22.58	1, 243	< 0.001	0.09
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.02 (1.14)	4.48 (1.10)	7.44	1, 243	0.007	0.03
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.003	1, 243	0.96	0.00
Motivation	Condition	Effort	Control
		4.00 (1.21)	4.67 (1.01)	18.95	1, 243	< 0.001	0.07
	Target’s gender	Female	Male
		4.05 (1.19)	4.63 (1.06)	13.38	1, 243	< 0.001	0.05
	Condition × Target’s gender			0.31	1, 243	0.58	0.001

Table 5 The Indirect Effect of Condition on Outcomes via Perceptions of Low Brilliance for Studies 3~4

	Indirect Effect	b	SE	95% CI
Study 3	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Suggestion	?0.30	0.09	[?0.49, ?0.15]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Intentions	?0.20	0.07	[?0.34, ?0.08]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Interest	?0.19	0.08	[?0.35, ?0.05]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Belonging	?0.24	0.07	[?0.40, ?0.11]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Motivation	?0.19	0.07	[?0.34, ?0.08]
Study 4	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Suggestion	?0.35	0.09	[?0.54, ?0.19]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Intentions	?0.34	0.10	[?0.54, ?0.16]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Interest	?0.45	0.11	[?0.70, ?0.25]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Belonging	?0.40	0.08	[?0.57, ?0.25]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Motivation	?0.34	0.08	[?0.50, ?0.18]

Table 5 The Indirect Effect of Condition on Outcomes via Perceptions of Low Brilliance for Studies 3~4

	Indirect Effect	b	SE	95% CI
Study 3	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Suggestion	?0.30	0.09	[?0.49, ?0.15]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Intentions	?0.20	0.07	[?0.34, ?0.08]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Interest	?0.19	0.08	[?0.35, ?0.05]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Belonging	?0.24	0.07	[?0.40, ?0.11]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Motivation	?0.19	0.07	[?0.34, ?0.08]
Study 4	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Suggestion	?0.35	0.09	[?0.54, ?0.19]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Intentions	?0.34	0.10	[?0.54, ?0.16]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Interest	?0.45	0.11	[?0.70, ?0.25]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Belonging	?0.40	0.08	[?0.57, ?0.25]
	Condition→Perceptions of low brilliance→Motivation	?0.34	0.08	[?0.50, ?0.18]

Figure 1. Mediation Model of the Paradox of Emphasizing Effort for Study 1.
Note. Outcomes include suggestion, anticipated intentions, interest, sense of belonging, and motivation. Regression coefficients are unstandardized. ^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01, ^***p < 0.001. The same descriptions apply below.

Figure 1. Mediation Model of the Paradox of Emphasizing Effort for Study 1.Note. Outcomes include suggestion, anticipated intentions, interest, sense of belonging, and motivation. Regression coefficients are unstandardized. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. The same descriptions apply below.

Figure 2. Mediation Model of the Paradox of Emphasizing Effort for Study 2.

Figure 2. Mediation Model of the Paradox of Emphasizing Effort for Study 2.

Table S1 Means and Standard Deviations of Outcomes for Study 1 (N = 219) [M (SD)]

	Effort condition			Control condition
	Female target n = 39	Male target n = 35	Unidentified gender n = 39	Female target n = 33	Male target n = 34	Unidentified gender n = 39
STEM	3.19 (1.39)	3.97 (1.12)	3.83 (0.99)	3.84 (0.61)	4.63 (0.90)	4.43 (0.81)
Computer science	3.51 (1.73)	3.97 (1.52)	3.85 (1.51)	4.27 (0.88)	4.97 (1.06)	4.77 (1.29)
Engineering	3.05 (1.34)	4.51 (1.20)	4.08 (1.13)	3.76 (1.09)	4.53 (1.13)	4.38 (1.14)
Physics	3.00 (1.56)	3.43 (1.42)	3.56 (1.31)	3.48 (1.25)	4.38 (1.35)	4.13 (1.11)

Table S1 Means and Standard Deviations of Outcomes for Study 1 (N = 219) [M (SD)]

	Effort condition			Control condition
	Female target n = 39	Male target n = 35	Unidentified gender n = 39	Female target n = 33	Male target n = 34	Unidentified gender n = 39
STEM	3.19 (1.39)	3.97 (1.12)	3.83 (0.99)	3.84 (0.61)	4.63 (0.90)	4.43 (0.81)
Computer science	3.51 (1.73)	3.97 (1.52)	3.85 (1.51)	4.27 (0.88)	4.97 (1.06)	4.77 (1.29)
Engineering	3.05 (1.34)	4.51 (1.20)	4.08 (1.13)	3.76 (1.09)	4.53 (1.13)	4.38 (1.14)
Physics	3.00 (1.56)	3.43 (1.42)	3.56 (1.31)	3.48 (1.25)	4.38 (1.35)	4.13 (1.11)

Table S2 Means and Standard Deviations of the Outcomes for Study 2 (N = 312) [M (SD)]

Variables		Effort condition		Control condition
Variables		Female target n = 80	Male target n = 92	Female target n = 62	Male target n = 78
Suggestion	STEM	3.29 (1.23)	3.71 (1.18)	4.25 (0.90)	4.62 (0.96)
	Computer science	3.45 (1.59)	3.79 (1.56)	4.50 (1.29)	4.83 (1.26)
	Engineering	3.46 (1.44)	4.01 (1.34)	4.26 (1.17)	4.63 (1.30)
	Physics	2.95 (1.40)	3.32 (1.53)	4.00 (1.20)	4.41 (1.19)
Intentions	STEM	3.08 (1.22)	3.44 (1.23)	3.95 (0.96)	4.25 (0.92)
	Computer science	3.28 (1.57)	3.62 (1.70)	4.24 (1.36)	4.59 (1.33)
	Engineering	3.31 (1.41)	3.89 (1.49)	4.05 (1.29)	4.33 (1.45)
	Physics	2.64 (1.47)	2.82 (1.67)	3.55 (1.41)	3.83 (1.39)

Table S2 Means and Standard Deviations of the Outcomes for Study 2 (N = 312) [M (SD)]

Variables		Effort condition		Control condition
Variables		Female target n = 80	Male target n = 92	Female target n = 62	Male target n = 78
Suggestion	STEM	3.29 (1.23)	3.71 (1.18)	4.25 (0.90)	4.62 (0.96)
	Computer science	3.45 (1.59)	3.79 (1.56)	4.50 (1.29)	4.83 (1.26)
	Engineering	3.46 (1.44)	4.01 (1.34)	4.26 (1.17)	4.63 (1.30)
	Physics	2.95 (1.40)	3.32 (1.53)	4.00 (1.20)	4.41 (1.19)
Intentions	STEM	3.08 (1.22)	3.44 (1.23)	3.95 (0.96)	4.25 (0.92)
	Computer science	3.28 (1.57)	3.62 (1.70)	4.24 (1.36)	4.59 (1.33)
	Engineering	3.31 (1.41)	3.89 (1.49)	4.05 (1.29)	4.33 (1.45)
	Physics	2.64 (1.47)	2.82 (1.67)	3.55 (1.41)	3.83 (1.39)

Table S3 Means and Standard Deviations of the Outcomes for Study 3 (N = 260) [M (SD)]

Outcomes	Effort condition		Control condition
Outcomes	Female target n = 65	Male target n = 61	Female target n = 65	Male target n = 69
Suggestion	4.00 (1.46)	3.89 (1.63)	4.69 (1.35)	4.99 (1.18)
Intentions	4.38 (1.38)	4.34 (1.64)	4.97 (1.02)	5.12 (1.09)
Interest	5.44 (1.49)	5.67 (1.77)	5.99 (1.15)	6.28 (1.17)
Sense of belonging	3.87 (1.33)	4.15 (1.25)	4.55 (0.99)	4.65 (0.80)
Motivation	4.08 (1.21)	4.43 (1.19)	4.55 (0.98)	4.71 (0.81)

Table S3 Means and Standard Deviations of the Outcomes for Study 3 (N = 260) [M (SD)]

Outcomes	Effort condition		Control condition
Outcomes	Female target n = 65	Male target n = 61	Female target n = 65	Male target n = 69
Suggestion	4.00 (1.46)	3.89 (1.63)	4.69 (1.35)	4.99 (1.18)
Intentions	4.38 (1.38)	4.34 (1.64)	4.97 (1.02)	5.12 (1.09)
Interest	5.44 (1.49)	5.67 (1.77)	5.99 (1.15)	6.28 (1.17)
Sense of belonging	3.87 (1.33)	4.15 (1.25)	4.55 (0.99)	4.65 (0.80)
Motivation	4.08 (1.21)	4.43 (1.19)	4.55 (0.98)	4.71 (0.81)

Table S4 Means and Standard Deviations of the Outcomes for Study 4 (N = 247) [M (SD)]

Outcomes	Effort condition		Control condition
Outcomes	Female target n = 71	Male target n = 53	Female target n = 55	Male target n = 68
Suggestion	3.49 (1.26)	3.68 (1.27)	4.53 (0.98)	5.00 (1.32)
Intentions	3.48 (1.51)	4.11 (1.40)	4.53 (1.45)	5.18 (1.25)
Interest	4.62 (1.80)	5.39 (1.31)	5.66 (1.40)	6.33 (1.63)
Sense of belonging	3.73 (1.16)	4.11 (1.02)	4.39 (1.02)	4.76 (1.09)
Motivation	3.75 (1.30)	4.33 (0.98)	4.43 (0.90)	4.86 (1.06)

Table S4 Means and Standard Deviations of the Outcomes for Study 4 (N = 247) [M (SD)]

Outcomes	Effort condition		Control condition
Outcomes	Female target n = 71	Male target n = 53	Female target n = 55	Male target n = 68
Suggestion	3.49 (1.26)	3.68 (1.27)	4.53 (0.98)	5.00 (1.32)
Intentions	3.48 (1.51)	4.11 (1.40)	4.53 (1.45)	5.18 (1.25)
Interest	4.62 (1.80)	5.39 (1.31)	5.66 (1.40)	6.33 (1.63)
Sense of belonging	3.73 (1.16)	4.11 (1.02)	4.39 (1.02)	4.76 (1.09)
Motivation	3.75 (1.30)	4.33 (0.98)	4.43 (0.90)	4.86 (1.06)

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