The positive effect of retrieval difficulty on the retrieval practice effect for difficult materials: Evidence from behavior and fNIRS*

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0363

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ZHANG Lijuan, JIANG Yanxue, MA Jianping, CUI Boyang, ZHANG Jinkun. (2025). The positive effect of retrieval difficulty on the retrieval practice effect for difficult materials: Evidence from behavior and fNIRS^*. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 57(3), 363-379.

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URL: https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0363

https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/Y2025/V57/I3/363

Figures/Tables 15

Figure 1. The experimental procedure of the Experiment 1.

Figure 1. The experimental procedure of the Experiment 1.

Table 1 Initial test recall accuracy, final test recall accuracy and memory retention rate under different conditions

variables	easy word pairs		difficult word pairs
variables	no retrieval support	with retrieval support	no retrieval support	with retrieval support
initial test recall accuracy	0.83(0.11)	0.96(0.05)	0.58(0.18)	0.92(0.07)
final test recall accuracy	0.56(0.15)	0.37(0.16)	0.17(0.08)	0.07(0.06)
memory retention rate	0.67(0.16)	0.38(0.16)	0.30(0.15)	0.07(0.06)

Table 1 Initial test recall accuracy, final test recall accuracy and memory retention rate under different conditions

variables	easy word pairs		difficult word pairs
variables	no retrieval support	with retrieval support	no retrieval support	with retrieval support
initial test recall accuracy	0.83(0.11)	0.96(0.05)	0.58(0.18)	0.92(0.07)
final test recall accuracy	0.56(0.15)	0.37(0.16)	0.17(0.08)	0.07(0.06)
memory retention rate	0.67(0.16)	0.38(0.16)	0.30(0.15)	0.07(0.06)

Figure 2. Initial test recall accuracy (a) and final test recall accuracy (b) for different conditions of retrieval support and word pair difficulty.

Figure 2. Initial test recall accuracy (a) and final test recall accuracy (b) for different conditions of retrieval support and word pair difficulty.

Figure 3. The experimental procedure of the Experiment 2.

Figure 3. The experimental procedure of the Experiment 2.

Figure 4. The channel layout of fNIRS experiment.

Figure 4. The channel layout of fNIRS experiment.

Table 2 The Brodmann area (BA) corresponding to the channel in the fNIRS experiment

channel	MNI coordinates			BA	coverage rate
channel	X	Y	Z	BA	coverage rate
CH1	?57	26	1	47- Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	58%
				45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	40%
CH2	?49	49	?3	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	50%
				10-Left frontopolar area	39%
CH3	?32	66	?1	10-Left frontopolar area	98%
CH4	?6	72	?2	10-Frontopolar area	79%
CH5	27	70	?4	11-Right orbitofrontal area	84%
CH6	49	53	?6	10-Right frontopolar area	49%
				47-Right inferior prefrontal gyrus	34%
CH7	56	28	?7	47-Right inferior prefrontal gyrus	93%
CH8	?65	0	14	6-Left pre-motor and supplementary motor cortex	48%
				22-Left superior temporal gyrus	30%
CH9	?56	32	11	45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	59%
				46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	39%
CH10	?42	56	12	10-Left frontopolar area	81%
CH11	?19	71	14	10-Left frontopolar area	100%
CH12	13	73	12	10-Right frontopolar area	100%
CH13	42	61	10	10-Right frontopolar area	96%
CH14	58	36	8	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	41%
				45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus	39%
CH15	65	2	6	22-Right superior temporal gyrus	61%
CH16	?62	10	26	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	39%
CH17	?49	38	27	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	97%
CH18	?31	57	28	10-Left frontopolar area	80%
CH19	?6	66	28	10-Frontopolar area	93%
CH20	26	63	28	10-Right frontopolar area	83%
CH21	50	43	26	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	84%
CH22	63	15	22	44/45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus	66%
				9-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	30%

Table 2 The Brodmann area (BA) corresponding to the channel in the fNIRS experiment

channel	MNI coordinates			BA	coverage rate
channel	X	Y	Z	BA	coverage rate
CH1	?57	26	1	47- Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	58%
				45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	40%
CH2	?49	49	?3	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	50%
				10-Left frontopolar area	39%
CH3	?32	66	?1	10-Left frontopolar area	98%
CH4	?6	72	?2	10-Frontopolar area	79%
CH5	27	70	?4	11-Right orbitofrontal area	84%
CH6	49	53	?6	10-Right frontopolar area	49%
				47-Right inferior prefrontal gyrus	34%
CH7	56	28	?7	47-Right inferior prefrontal gyrus	93%
CH8	?65	0	14	6-Left pre-motor and supplementary motor cortex	48%
				22-Left superior temporal gyrus	30%
CH9	?56	32	11	45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	59%
				46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	39%
CH10	?42	56	12	10-Left frontopolar area	81%
CH11	?19	71	14	10-Left frontopolar area	100%
CH12	13	73	12	10-Right frontopolar area	100%
CH13	42	61	10	10-Right frontopolar area	96%
CH14	58	36	8	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	41%
				45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus	39%
CH15	65	2	6	22-Right superior temporal gyrus	61%
CH16	?62	10	26	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	39%
CH17	?49	38	27	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	97%
CH18	?31	57	28	10-Left frontopolar area	80%
CH19	?6	66	28	10-Frontopolar area	93%
CH20	26	63	28	10-Right frontopolar area	83%
CH21	50	43	26	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	84%
CH22	63	15	22	44/45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus	66%
				9-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	30%

Table 3 The final test recall accuracy under different conditions

variable	no-restudy (direct effect)				With-restudy (indirect effect)
variable	easy + no-retrieval support	easy + with-retrieval support	difficult + no-retrieval support	difficult + with-retrieval support	easy + no-retrieval support	easy + with-retrieval support	difficult + no-retrieval support	difficult + with-retrieval support
final test recall accuracy	0.54(0.21)	0.34(0.17)	0.18(0.13)	0.07(0.50)	0.62(0.19)	0.36(0.21)	0.32(0.22)	0.09(0.08)

Table 3 The final test recall accuracy under different conditions

variable	no-restudy (direct effect)				With-restudy (indirect effect)
variable	easy + no-retrieval support	easy + with-retrieval support	difficult + no-retrieval support	difficult + with-retrieval support	easy + no-retrieval support	easy + with-retrieval support	difficult + no-retrieval support	difficult + with-retrieval support
final test recall accuracy	0.54(0.21)	0.34(0.17)	0.18(0.13)	0.07(0.50)	0.62(0.19)	0.36(0.21)	0.32(0.22)	0.09(0.08)

Figure 5. The final test recall accuracy of different word pair difficulty and restudy group under the condition of no-retrieval support (5a) and with-retrieval support (5b).

Figure 5. The final test recall accuracy of different word pair difficulty and restudy group under the condition of no-retrieval support (5a) and with-retrieval support (5b).

Table 4 Channels with significant effects on retrieval support and word pair difficulty in retrieval stage

effect	channel	BA	F(1, 32)	p	η²_p
retrieval support main effect	CH15	22-Right superior temporal gyrus	8.81	0.01	0.22
word pair difficulty effect	CH2	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	5.58	0.02	0.15
		10-Left frontopolar area
	CH9	45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	4.83	0.04	0.13
		46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
	CH14	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	4.23	0.05	0.12
		45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH16	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	4.28	0.05	0.12
	CH17	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	5.91	0.02	0.16

Table 4 Channels with significant effects on retrieval support and word pair difficulty in retrieval stage

effect	channel	BA	F(1, 32)	p	η²_p
retrieval support main effect	CH15	22-Right superior temporal gyrus	8.81	0.01	0.22
word pair difficulty effect	CH2	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	5.58	0.02	0.15
		10-Left frontopolar area
	CH9	45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	4.83	0.04	0.13
		46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
	CH14	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	4.23	0.05	0.12
		45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH16	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	4.28	0.05	0.12
	CH17	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	5.91	0.02	0.16

Figure 6. Activation maps of brain areas for each main effect of retrieval support and word pair difficulty in retrieval practice stage.
Note: See the electronic version for color maps, the same below.

Figure 6. Activation maps of brain areas for each main effect of retrieval support and word pair difficulty in retrieval practice stage.Note: See the electronic version for color maps, the same below.

Table 5 Statistically significant results of the main effects of retrieval support and word pair difficulty in the restudy stage

effect	channel	BA	F(1, 31)	p	η²_p
retrieval support main effect	CH12	10-Right frontopolar area	7.57	0.01	0.20
retrieval support main effect	CH18	10-Left frontopolar area	4.50	0.04	0.13
word pair difficulty effect	CH1	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	10.12	0.01	0.25
		45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH7	47-Right inferior prefrontal gyrus	4.20	0.05	0.12
	CH9	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	5.65	0.02	0.16
	CH16	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	5.35	0.03	0.15
	CH17	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	7.52	0.01	0.20
	CH20	10-Right frontopolar area	10.87	0.01	0.27
	CH21	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	4.16	0.05	0.12

Table 5 Statistically significant results of the main effects of retrieval support and word pair difficulty in the restudy stage

effect	channel	BA	F(1, 31)	p	η²_p
retrieval support main effect	CH12	10-Right frontopolar area	7.57	0.01	0.20
retrieval support main effect	CH18	10-Left frontopolar area	4.50	0.04	0.13
word pair difficulty effect	CH1	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	10.12	0.01	0.25
		45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH7	47-Right inferior prefrontal gyrus	4.20	0.05	0.12
	CH9	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	5.65	0.02	0.16
	CH16	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	5.35	0.03	0.15
	CH17	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	7.52	0.01	0.20
	CH20	10-Right frontopolar area	10.87	0.01	0.27
	CH21	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	4.16	0.05	0.12

Figure 7. Brain area activation of the main effects of retrieval support and word pair difficulty in the restudy stage.

Figure 7. Brain area activation of the main effects of retrieval support and word pair difficulty in the restudy stage.

Table 6 Significantly activated channels between restudy and initial learning stage under no-retrieval support condition

effect	channel	BA	t(1, 15)	p	d	95% CI
easy word pairs	CH20	10-Right frontopolar area	?2.29	0.04	0.66	[?0.005, ?0.001]
difficult word pairs	CH12	10-Right frontopolar area	2.57	0.02	0.92	[0.001, 0.007]
	CH14	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	2.25	0.04	0.86	[0.001, 0.009]
		45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH17	46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	3.21	0.01	1.14	[0.003, 0.013]
	CH18	10-Left frontopolar area	3.46	0.01	1.23	[0.002, 0.011]
	CH19	10-Frontopolar area	2.28	0.04	0.90	[0.001, 0.012]

Table 6 Significantly activated channels between restudy and initial learning stage under no-retrieval support condition

effect	channel	BA	t(1, 15)	p	d	95% CI
easy word pairs	CH20	10-Right frontopolar area	?2.29	0.04	0.66	[?0.005, ?0.001]
difficult word pairs	CH12	10-Right frontopolar area	2.57	0.02	0.92	[0.001, 0.007]
	CH14	46-Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	2.25	0.04	0.86	[0.001, 0.009]
		45-Pars triangularis of the right inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH17	46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	3.21	0.01	1.14	[0.003, 0.013]
	CH18	10-Left frontopolar area	3.46	0.01	1.23	[0.002, 0.011]
	CH19	10-Frontopolar area	2.28	0.04	0.90	[0.001, 0.012]

Figure 8. Comparison of brain activation between no-retrieval support (a) and (b) with-retrieval support groups in restudy and initial learning stage.

Figure 8. Comparison of brain activation between no-retrieval support (a) and (b) with-retrieval support groups in restudy and initial learning stage.

Table 7 Significantly activated channels between restudy and initial learning stage under with-retrieval support condition

effect	channel	BA	t(1, 15)	p	d	95% CI
easy word pairs	CH1	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	?4.52	<0.001	1.33	[?0.017, ?0.006]
		45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH8	6-Left pre-motor and supplementary motor cortex	?3.29	0.01	1.01	[?0.013, ?0.003]
		22-Left superior temporal gyrus
	CH9	45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	?3.21	0.01	1.23	[?0.011, ?0.002]
		46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
	CH16	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	?3.15	0.01	0.88	[?0.013, ?0.002]

Table 7 Significantly activated channels between restudy and initial learning stage under with-retrieval support condition

effect	channel	BA	t(1, 15)	p	d	95% CI
easy word pairs	CH1	47-Left inferior prefrontal gyrus	?4.52	<0.001	1.33	[?0.017, ?0.006]
		45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus
	CH8	6-Left pre-motor and supplementary motor cortex	?3.29	0.01	1.01	[?0.013, ?0.003]
		22-Left superior temporal gyrus
	CH9	45-Pars triangularis of the left inferior prefrontal gyrus	?3.21	0.01	1.23	[?0.011, ?0.002]
		46-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
	CH16	9-Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	?3.15	0.01	0.88	[?0.013, ?0.002]

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