Multidimensional psychology of filial piety (xiao): Differences in orientation and changes from ancient to modern times

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2021.00306

Abstract

Abstract:

Filial piety (xiao) refers to the proper way to treat parents, an important concept in Chinese culture. Past research in the realm of filial piety has had some limitations, such as unsatisfactory reliability and validity, confounding of subjective researcher intent, and omissions of important factors. Here, I have tested an operational conceptualization of filial piety. Specifically, in the pilot study, items were generated in two ways. First, 50 items were adapted from four Chinese philosophical classics. Second, 56 participants were then recruited to list 5–10 characteristics of filial piety, with a total of 337 individually generated descriptors that I collected, which were then grouped into 48 categories. In Study 1, I used exploratory factor analysis to construct a measure of filial piety (N = 633). In Study 2, I used confirmatory factor analysis and tested the correlations of each dimension of filial piety and criterion vari-ables (N = 396 and 206). The results demonstrated that filial piety is composed of nine factors: respecting and pleasing parents, obey-ing parents, being kind and pleasant to parents, adhering to principles without letting parents feel humiliated, accompanying parents, making a name for oneself and letting parents feel honored, yearning for parents, not interfering with parents, and dissuading parents. The nine-factor structure has good reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, criterion-related validity, and content validity. Different factors have different patterns of correlations with criterion variables. These findings help to understand the internal struc-ture of filial piety and differentiate its good side from its dark side.

Key words: xiao, Confucianism cultural psychology, filial piety, filial behavior, indigenous psychology

GE Xiaoyu. (2021). Multidimensional psychology of filial piety (xiao): Differences in orientation and changes from ancient to modern times. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 53(3), 306-321.

Figures/Tables 7

References 47

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Hypotheses	Theoretical Basis (example) ^a
Hypothesis 1: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of not violating principles.	As recorded in Wei Zheng of the Analects of Confucius, Meng Yi asked what filial piety was. The Master said, “It is not being disobedient.” ... ^b
Hypothesis 2: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of being kind and pleasant to parents.	As recorded in Wei Zheng of the Analects of Confucius, Zi Xia asked what filial piety was. The Master said, “The difficulty is with the countenance...”
Hypothesis 3: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of dissuading parents.	As recorded in Li Ren of the Analects of Confucius, the Master said, “In serving his parents, a son may remonstrate with them, but gently...”
Hypothesis 4: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of adhering to principles without letting parents feel humiliated. ^c	As recorded in Li Lou of the Works of Mencius, Mencius said, “... Of charges, which is the greatest? The charge of one’s self is the greatest...”
Hypothesis 5: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of not interfering with parents.	As recorded in Li Lou of the Works of Mencius, Mencius said, “... We may call Zengzi’s practice ‘nourishing the will...’”
Hypothesis 6: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of yearning for parents.	As recorded in Wan Zhang of the Works of Mencius, Mencius said, “... But the man of great filial piety, to the end of his life, has his desire towards his parents...”
Hypothesis 7: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of making a name for oneself and letting parents feel honored.	As recorded in the Classic of Filial Piety, when we have established our character by the practice of the (filial) course, so as to make our name famous in future ages and thereby glorify our parents, this is the end of filial piety.
Hypothesis 8: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of respecting and pleasing parents.	As recorded in the Classic of Filial Piety, the Master said, “The service which a filial son does to his parents is as follows: In his general conduct to them, he manifests the utmost reverence. In his nourishing of them, his endeavor is to give them the utmost pleasure. When they are ill, he feels the greatest anxiety...”
Hypothesis 9: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of obeying parents.	As recorded in Nei Ze of the Book of Rites, if the parent be angry and (more) displeased, and beat him till the blood flows, he should not presume to be angry and resentful, but be (still) more reverential and more filial.
Hypothesis 10: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of continuing parents. ^d	As recorded in Ji Yi of the Book of Rites, Zengzi said, “The body is that which has been transmitted to us by our parents...”

Hypotheses	Theoretical Basis (example) ^a
Hypothesis 1: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of not violating principles.	As recorded in Wei Zheng of the Analects of Confucius, Meng Yi asked what filial piety was. The Master said, “It is not being disobedient.” ... ^b
Hypothesis 2: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of being kind and pleasant to parents.	As recorded in Wei Zheng of the Analects of Confucius, Zi Xia asked what filial piety was. The Master said, “The difficulty is with the countenance...”
Hypothesis 3: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of dissuading parents.	As recorded in Li Ren of the Analects of Confucius, the Master said, “In serving his parents, a son may remonstrate with them, but gently...”
Hypothesis 4: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of adhering to principles without letting parents feel humiliated. ^c	As recorded in Li Lou of the Works of Mencius, Mencius said, “... Of charges, which is the greatest? The charge of one’s self is the greatest...”
Hypothesis 5: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of not interfering with parents.	As recorded in Li Lou of the Works of Mencius, Mencius said, “... We may call Zengzi’s practice ‘nourishing the will...’”
Hypothesis 6: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of yearning for parents.	As recorded in Wan Zhang of the Works of Mencius, Mencius said, “... But the man of great filial piety, to the end of his life, has his desire towards his parents...”
Hypothesis 7: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of making a name for oneself and letting parents feel honored.	As recorded in the Classic of Filial Piety, when we have established our character by the practice of the (filial) course, so as to make our name famous in future ages and thereby glorify our parents, this is the end of filial piety.
Hypothesis 8: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of respecting and pleasing parents.	As recorded in the Classic of Filial Piety, the Master said, “The service which a filial son does to his parents is as follows: In his general conduct to them, he manifests the utmost reverence. In his nourishing of them, his endeavor is to give them the utmost pleasure. When they are ill, he feels the greatest anxiety...”
Hypothesis 9: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of obeying parents.	As recorded in Nei Ze of the Book of Rites, if the parent be angry and (more) displeased, and beat him till the blood flows, he should not presume to be angry and resentful, but be (still) more reverential and more filial.
Hypothesis 10: Filial piety, at least, contains a factor of continuing parents. ^d	As recorded in Ji Yi of the Book of Rites, Zengzi said, “The body is that which has been transmitted to us by our parents...”

Items	Respecting and pleasing parents	Obeying parents	Being kind and pleasant to parents	Adhering to principles without letting parents feel humiliated	Accompanying parents	Making a name for oneself and letting parents feel honored	Yearning for parents	Not interfering with parents	Dissuading parents	Communality	Sources
1. I respect my parents.	0.72	-0.08	0.17	-0.07	-0.04	0.02	-0.05	0.07	-0.09	0.52	Participant-generated
2. I try to make my parents’ life comfortable and happy.	0.67	-0.03	-0.09	-0.02	0.09	0.02	-0.07	0.08	-0.03	0.41	Participant-generated
3. I feel grateful to my parents.	0.65	-0.01	0.04	-0.01	-0.12	-0.02	0.13	0.04	0.04	0.48	Participant-generated
4. I attach great importance to respect for my parents.	0.63	0.05	0.25	0.00	-0.14	-0.03	0.03	-0.02	-0.06	0.53	Wei Zheng of the Analects of Confucius (Confucius), Sheng Zhi of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius), Ji Yi of the Book of Rites (Zengzi), and Fang Ji of the Book of Rites (Confucius)
5. When my parents are ill, I will stay with them and take care of them.	0.60	0.15	-0.17	0.02	0.18	0.02	-0.08	-0.15	0.18	0.50	Participant-generated
6. I care about my parents’ health.	0.57	0.02	-0.06	-0.01	0.14	-0.01	-0.01	0.01	0.05	0.39	Participant-generated
7. I will accept my parents even if they are not perfect.	0.56	-0.15	0.00	0.04	-0.11	0.01	0.16	0.04	-0.05	0.33	Participant-generated
8. When my parents are ill, I fully express my concern for their health.	0.52	0.11	-0.08	0.01	0.01	0.07	-0.02	-0.06	0.17	0.39	Ji Xiao Xing of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
9. When I provide for my parents, I try to give them great pleasure.	0.50	0.01	0.11	0.09	0.09	0.02	-0.08	0.07	-0.09	0.41	Ji Xiao Xing of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
10. When my parents beat and scolded me, I would not retaliate nor resist.	-0.12	0.77	0.17	0.03	-0.06	-0.08	0.03	-0.03	0.03	0.65	Participant-generated
11. Even if my parents were angry and beat me to the point of bleeding, I would not resent them.	0.07	0.71	0.00	-0.04	-0.09	-0.06	0.06	0.13	-0.06	0.54	Nei Ze of the Book of Rites
12. I try to give my parents whatever they want, whether it’s reasonable or not.	-0.09	0.63	-0.11	-0.08	0.08	0.01	0.00	0.20	-0.14	0.37	Participant-generated
13. I will change my tune and be submissive to my parents in order to win their favor.	-0.05	0.59	-0.11	0.03	0.05	0.09	0.04	-0.11	-0.01	0.36	Li Lou of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
14. When my parents need me, I will stop what I am doing immediately.	0.05	0.58	0.04	-0.01	-0.06	0.03	0.01	-0.07	0.17	0.39	Yu Zao of the Book of Rites
15. I treat my parents well even if they don’t treat me well.	0.23	0.54	0.02	0.05	-0.03	-0.01	0.03	-0.01	-0.12	0.49	Participant-generated
16. I am patient with my parents.	0.08	-0.12	0.78	0.01	0.05	-0.01	0.01	-0.06	-0.04	0.58	Participant-generated
17. When my parents nag me, I don’t mind them being annoying.	-0.13	0.10	0.66	-0.03	0.02	0.00	0.11	-0.01	0.08	0.55	Participant-generated
18. I treat my parents with gentle attitude, do not lose my temper, do not quarrel, and do not shout.	0.06	0.05	0.66	0.04	0.01	-0.07	-0.06	-0.04	0.07	0.49	Participant-generated
19. If my parents are at fault, I will admonish them kindly and softly.	0.03	-0.01	0.62	-0.03	0.09	0.02	-0.04	0.00	0.09	0.46	Nei Ze of the Book of Rites
Items	Respecting and pleasing parents	Obeying parents	Being kind and pleasant to parents	Adhering to principles without letting parents feel humiliated	Accompanying parents	Making a name for oneself and letting parents feel honored	Yearning for parents	Not interfering with parents	Dissuading parents	Communality	Sources
20. I listen to my parents and don’t contradict them.	0.05	0.25	0.55	-0.02	0.05	0.07	-0.09	-0.03	-0.07	0.56	Participant-generated
21. I value moral cultivation and behave prudently, for I fear that my fault will dishonor my ancestors.	0.00	0.03	-0.03	0.83	-0.03	-0.03	-0.04	0.06	-0.07	0.65	Gan Ying of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
22. I do not go to dangerous places for fear of dishonoring my parents.	-0.03	-0.02	0.04	0.72	-0.03	-0.02	0.10	-0.06	0.02	0.53	Qu Li of the Book of Rites
23. I hold fast to my principle that I might not dishonor my parents by bringing unrighteousness upon myself.	0.21	-0.12	-0.09	0.63	-0.04	0.00	0.04	0.03	0.06	0.46	Li Lou of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
24. In order not to dishonor my ancestors, I do not do wrong things.	-0.15	0.15	0.11	0.56	0.10	0.07	-0.11	0.02	-0.01	0.49	Participant-generated
25. I often accompany my parents.	-0.08	-0.02	0.05	-0.02	0.78	-0.03	0.00	0.04	-0.02	0.59	Participant-generated
26. My parents are on my mind, and I often greet them and go home to see them.	0.14	0.01	0.03	-0.02	0.67	-0.03	0.02	0.03	-0.07	0.54	Participant-generated
27. I often chat and communicate with my parents and share my life.	0.02	-0.09	0.20	0.01	0.51	0.00	0.15	-0.01	-0.01	0.48	Participant-generated
28. I want to build a career and make a name for myself, to honor my parents.	0.06	-0.03	-0.04	-0.06	-0.10	0.89	0.03	0.00	-0.02	0.71	Kai Zong Ming Yi of the Classic of Filial Piety
29. I try to make others admire me and make my parents proud.	0.06	-0.01	-0.06	0.03	0.10	0.63	0.05	-0.10	-0.07	0.44	Participant-generated
30. I work hard in my studies or career to glorify my ancestors.	-0.10	0.07	0.16	0.07	-0.06	0.59	-0.07	0.13	0.06	0.51	Participant-generated
31. I yearn for and attach to my parents all my life.	0.02	0.03	-0.02	-0.01	0.03	0.05	0.76	-0.01	0.00	0.64	Wan Zhang of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
32. Even at the age of fifty, I would yearn for and attach to my parents as I did when I was a child.	0.01	0.12	-0.01	0.04	0.07	-0.02	0.66	-0.01	0.01	0.58	Wan Zhang of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
33. I don’t interfere too much in my parents’ lives, and I respect their lives.	0.11	0.09	-0.08	0.00	0.01	-0.05	-0.07	0.64	0.12	0.46	Participant-generated
34. I can follow the wishes of my parents, and do not hinder them to achieve their own aspirations.	0.00	0.01	-0.04	0.06	0.08	0.05	0.09	0.55	0.09	0.45	Li Lou of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
35. If my parents have unrighteous behaviors, I will admonish them not to get into mistakes.	0.08	-0.06	0.04	0.02	-0.12	-0.08	-0.02	0.09	0.59	0.37	Li Ren of the Analects of Confucius (Confucius) and Jian Zheng of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
36. If parents make mistakes, I will remind them.	-0.04	-0.09	0.14	-0.05	0.08	0.04	0.05	0.15	0.51	0.41	Participant-generated
Eigenvalues after rotation	9.24	2.32	1.53	1.23	0.87	0.87	0.65	0.53	0.46
Contribution rate	25.7%	6.5%	4.3%	3.4%	2.4%	2.4%	1.8%	1.5%	1.3%	49.2%
Internal consistency reliability	0.85	0.81	0.83	0.78	0.76	0.75	0.76	0.61	0.56

Items	Respecting and pleasing parents	Obeying parents	Being kind and pleasant to parents	Adhering to principles without letting parents feel humiliated	Accompanying parents	Making a name for oneself and letting parents feel honored	Yearning for parents	Not interfering with parents	Dissuading parents	Communality	Sources
1. I respect my parents.	0.72	-0.08	0.17	-0.07	-0.04	0.02	-0.05	0.07	-0.09	0.52	Participant-generated
2. I try to make my parents’ life comfortable and happy.	0.67	-0.03	-0.09	-0.02	0.09	0.02	-0.07	0.08	-0.03	0.41	Participant-generated
3. I feel grateful to my parents.	0.65	-0.01	0.04	-0.01	-0.12	-0.02	0.13	0.04	0.04	0.48	Participant-generated
4. I attach great importance to respect for my parents.	0.63	0.05	0.25	0.00	-0.14	-0.03	0.03	-0.02	-0.06	0.53	Wei Zheng of the Analects of Confucius (Confucius), Sheng Zhi of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius), Ji Yi of the Book of Rites (Zengzi), and Fang Ji of the Book of Rites (Confucius)
5. When my parents are ill, I will stay with them and take care of them.	0.60	0.15	-0.17	0.02	0.18	0.02	-0.08	-0.15	0.18	0.50	Participant-generated
6. I care about my parents’ health.	0.57	0.02	-0.06	-0.01	0.14	-0.01	-0.01	0.01	0.05	0.39	Participant-generated
7. I will accept my parents even if they are not perfect.	0.56	-0.15	0.00	0.04	-0.11	0.01	0.16	0.04	-0.05	0.33	Participant-generated
8. When my parents are ill, I fully express my concern for their health.	0.52	0.11	-0.08	0.01	0.01	0.07	-0.02	-0.06	0.17	0.39	Ji Xiao Xing of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
9. When I provide for my parents, I try to give them great pleasure.	0.50	0.01	0.11	0.09	0.09	0.02	-0.08	0.07	-0.09	0.41	Ji Xiao Xing of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
10. When my parents beat and scolded me, I would not retaliate nor resist.	-0.12	0.77	0.17	0.03	-0.06	-0.08	0.03	-0.03	0.03	0.65	Participant-generated
11. Even if my parents were angry and beat me to the point of bleeding, I would not resent them.	0.07	0.71	0.00	-0.04	-0.09	-0.06	0.06	0.13	-0.06	0.54	Nei Ze of the Book of Rites
12. I try to give my parents whatever they want, whether it’s reasonable or not.	-0.09	0.63	-0.11	-0.08	0.08	0.01	0.00	0.20	-0.14	0.37	Participant-generated
13. I will change my tune and be submissive to my parents in order to win their favor.	-0.05	0.59	-0.11	0.03	0.05	0.09	0.04	-0.11	-0.01	0.36	Li Lou of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
14. When my parents need me, I will stop what I am doing immediately.	0.05	0.58	0.04	-0.01	-0.06	0.03	0.01	-0.07	0.17	0.39	Yu Zao of the Book of Rites
15. I treat my parents well even if they don’t treat me well.	0.23	0.54	0.02	0.05	-0.03	-0.01	0.03	-0.01	-0.12	0.49	Participant-generated
16. I am patient with my parents.	0.08	-0.12	0.78	0.01	0.05	-0.01	0.01	-0.06	-0.04	0.58	Participant-generated
17. When my parents nag me, I don’t mind them being annoying.	-0.13	0.10	0.66	-0.03	0.02	0.00	0.11	-0.01	0.08	0.55	Participant-generated
18. I treat my parents with gentle attitude, do not lose my temper, do not quarrel, and do not shout.	0.06	0.05	0.66	0.04	0.01	-0.07	-0.06	-0.04	0.07	0.49	Participant-generated
19. If my parents are at fault, I will admonish them kindly and softly.	0.03	-0.01	0.62	-0.03	0.09	0.02	-0.04	0.00	0.09	0.46	Nei Ze of the Book of Rites
Items	Respecting and pleasing parents	Obeying parents	Being kind and pleasant to parents	Adhering to principles without letting parents feel humiliated	Accompanying parents	Making a name for oneself and letting parents feel honored	Yearning for parents	Not interfering with parents	Dissuading parents	Communality	Sources
20. I listen to my parents and don’t contradict them.	0.05	0.25	0.55	-0.02	0.05	0.07	-0.09	-0.03	-0.07	0.56	Participant-generated
21. I value moral cultivation and behave prudently, for I fear that my fault will dishonor my ancestors.	0.00	0.03	-0.03	0.83	-0.03	-0.03	-0.04	0.06	-0.07	0.65	Gan Ying of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
22. I do not go to dangerous places for fear of dishonoring my parents.	-0.03	-0.02	0.04	0.72	-0.03	-0.02	0.10	-0.06	0.02	0.53	Qu Li of the Book of Rites
23. I hold fast to my principle that I might not dishonor my parents by bringing unrighteousness upon myself.	0.21	-0.12	-0.09	0.63	-0.04	0.00	0.04	0.03	0.06	0.46	Li Lou of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
24. In order not to dishonor my ancestors, I do not do wrong things.	-0.15	0.15	0.11	0.56	0.10	0.07	-0.11	0.02	-0.01	0.49	Participant-generated
25. I often accompany my parents.	-0.08	-0.02	0.05	-0.02	0.78	-0.03	0.00	0.04	-0.02	0.59	Participant-generated
26. My parents are on my mind, and I often greet them and go home to see them.	0.14	0.01	0.03	-0.02	0.67	-0.03	0.02	0.03	-0.07	0.54	Participant-generated
27. I often chat and communicate with my parents and share my life.	0.02	-0.09	0.20	0.01	0.51	0.00	0.15	-0.01	-0.01	0.48	Participant-generated
28. I want to build a career and make a name for myself, to honor my parents.	0.06	-0.03	-0.04	-0.06	-0.10	0.89	0.03	0.00	-0.02	0.71	Kai Zong Ming Yi of the Classic of Filial Piety
29. I try to make others admire me and make my parents proud.	0.06	-0.01	-0.06	0.03	0.10	0.63	0.05	-0.10	-0.07	0.44	Participant-generated
30. I work hard in my studies or career to glorify my ancestors.	-0.10	0.07	0.16	0.07	-0.06	0.59	-0.07	0.13	0.06	0.51	Participant-generated
31. I yearn for and attach to my parents all my life.	0.02	0.03	-0.02	-0.01	0.03	0.05	0.76	-0.01	0.00	0.64	Wan Zhang of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
32. Even at the age of fifty, I would yearn for and attach to my parents as I did when I was a child.	0.01	0.12	-0.01	0.04	0.07	-0.02	0.66	-0.01	0.01	0.58	Wan Zhang of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
33. I don’t interfere too much in my parents’ lives, and I respect their lives.	0.11	0.09	-0.08	0.00	0.01	-0.05	-0.07	0.64	0.12	0.46	Participant-generated
34. I can follow the wishes of my parents, and do not hinder them to achieve their own aspirations.	0.00	0.01	-0.04	0.06	0.08	0.05	0.09	0.55	0.09	0.45	Li Lou of the Works of Mencius (Mencius)
35. If my parents have unrighteous behaviors, I will admonish them not to get into mistakes.	0.08	-0.06	0.04	0.02	-0.12	-0.08	-0.02	0.09	0.59	0.37	Li Ren of the Analects of Confucius (Confucius) and Jian Zheng of the Classic of Filial Piety (Confucius)
36. If parents make mistakes, I will remind them.	-0.04	-0.09	0.14	-0.05	0.08	0.04	0.05	0.15	0.51	0.41	Participant-generated
Eigenvalues after rotation	9.24	2.32	1.53	1.23	0.87	0.87	0.65	0.53	0.46
Contribution rate	25.7%	6.5%	4.3%	3.4%	2.4%	2.4%	1.8%	1.5%	1.3%	49.2%
Internal consistency reliability	0.85	0.81	0.83	0.78	0.76	0.75	0.76	0.61	0.56

Model	χ²	df	χ²/df	GFI	RMSEA	RMR R	CFI	NFI	NNFI	TLI	IFI	Minimum of standardized loadings	Minimum of AVE
Nine-factor model	1074.98^***	558	1.93	0.87	0.05	0.07	0.92	0.86	0.91	0.91	0.92	0.64	0.51
Eight-factor model	1161.57^***	566	2.05	0.86	0.05	0.08	0.91	0.84	0.90	0.90	0.91	0.59	0.40
Seven-factor model	1445.82^***	573	2.52	0.83	0.06	0.09	0.87	0.81	0.86	0.86	0.87	0.30	0.40
Three-factor model	2727.11^***	591	4.61	0.64	0.10	0.14	0.68	0.63	0.66	0.66	0.69	0.22	0.36